Bidding For Hertz: Leveraged Buyout Essay

TO ACCESS THIS DOCUMENT This is a protected document. The first two pages are available for everyone to see, but only faculty members who have verified faculty status with Darden Business Publishing are able to view this entire inspection copy. Username: Submit VERIFIED FACULTY If you have verified faculty status with Darden Business Publishing, simply enter the same username that you use on the Darden Business Publishing Web site, and then click â€Å"Submit.† Please note that this is an inspection copy and is not for classroom use. Faculty Register UNVERIFIED FACULTY If you are teaching faculty and do not yet have verified faculty access with Darden Business Publishing, please click on the â€Å"Faculty Register† link and submit your information requesting verified faculty access. Buy Case Now OTHER USERS If you would like to read the full document, click on â€Å"Buy Case Now† to be redirected to the Darden Business Publishing Web site where you can purchase this and other Darden cases. If you have any questions or need technical help, please contact Darden Business Publishing at 1-800-246-3367 or email sales@dardenbusinesspublishing.com Document Id 0000-1402-9024-00009159 The protectedpdf technology is  © Copyright 2006 Vitrium Systems Inc. All Rights Reserved. Patents Pending. UVA-F-1560 Rev. April 17, 2009 BIDDING FOR HERTZ: LEVERAGED BUYOUT Overview In late summer 2005, Greg Ledford, managing director and head of automotive and transportation buyouts at the Carlyle Group, found himself examining his BlackBerry atop the Great Wall of China. Though he had planned to be sightseeing with his daughter, his immediate focus was to finalize the terms of the second-largest leveraged buyout in history. The target in question was Hertz, a subsidiary of the Ford Motor Company, which was up for sale. Ledford needed to decide the price he and his co-investors would offer for Hertz as well as assess the potential returns and risks of the deal. Already months of work, many dollars of due diligence, and arrangement of tentative financing had gone into the bid. Complicating matters, he knew he faced tough competition from a rival buyout group, no doubt engaged in a similar process. The race to win Hertz had been set in motion several months earlier, when William Clay Ford Jr., the chairman and CEO of Ford, announced plans to explore â€Å"strategic alternatives† for Hertz in April 2005. That announcement was followed in June 2005 by the filing of an S-1 registration statement setting up a â€Å"dual track process† that would result in a Hertz IPO should other sale prospects fail. Ledford, who spoke to senior Ford managers on a regular basis, had gleaned that there was interest on Ford’s part for an outright sale of Hertz. He believed a private sale that was competitive with an IPO would be viewed favorably by Ford due to its greater upfront cash proceeds and certainty of execution. When no strategic buyer surfaced, Carlyle, Clayton, Dubilier & Rice (CD&R), and Merrill Lynch Global Private  Equity (collectively â€Å"Bidding Group†) joined forces to bid on Hertz. It faced competition from another buyout consortium that included Texa s Pacific Group, Blackstone, Thomas H. Lee Partners LP, and Bain Capital LLC. This case was prepared by Susan Chaplinsky, Professor of Business Administration, Darden Graduate School of Business, and Felicia Marston, Professor, McIntire School of Commerce. It was written as a basis for class discussion rather than to illustrate effective or ineffective handling of an administrative situation. Copyright  © 2008 by the University of Virginia Darden School Foundation, Charlottesville, VA. All rights reserved. To order copies, send an e-mail to sales@dardenbusinesspublishing.com. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, used in a spreadsheet, or transmitted in any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise—without the permission of the Darden School Foundation. Rev. 4/09. UVA-F-1560 Hertz Ownership History Hertz’s ownership history was characterized by a series of sales, public offerings, and leveraged buyouts (Exhibit 1).1 The company was first established in 1918 by 22-year-old Walter L. Jacobs as a car rental operation with a modest inventory of 12 Model T Fords that Jacobs personally had repaired and repainted. The venture was immediately successful, leading Jacobs to expand and generate annual revenues of approximately of $1 million within five years. At the $1 million mark, in 1923, Jacobs sold his company to John Hertz, president of Yellow Cab and Yellow Truck and Coach Manufacturing Company, who gave his name to the company, creating â€Å"Hertz Drive-Ur-Self System† and a brand name that had endured ever since. John Hertz sold his investment three years later to General Motors (GM). In 1953, GM in turn sold the Hertz properties to the Omnibus Corporation, which simplified the company’s name to â€Å"The Hertz Corporation† in connection with a public stock offering on the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE). In late 1987,  together with Hertz management, Ford Motor Company participated in a management buyout of the company. Hertz later became an independent, wholly owned subsidiary of Ford in 1994. Less than three years later, Ford issued a minority stake of shares through a public offering on the NYSE on April 25, 1997. In early 2001, Ford reacquired the outstanding shares of Hertz and the company again became a wholly owned subsidiary of the Ford Motor Company. Hertz Financial History and Business Segments The large investor interest in Hertz over time was due in part to the company’s proven financial ability. In fact, the company had produced a pretax profit each year since 1967. During the period 1985 to 2005, revenues had grown at a compound annual growth rate of 7.6% with positive year-over-year growth in 18 of those 20 years. Over the past same period, Hertz had emerged as a truly global enterprise; it had car rental operations in 145 countries, and more than 30% of its total revenues were from outside of the United States. Hertz was among the most globally recognized brands and had been listed in BusinessWeek’s â€Å"100 Most Valuable Global Brands† (limited to public companies) in 2005 and every year since it was eligible for inclusion. Hertz currently operated in two business segments: car rental (â€Å"Hertz Rent A Car† or â€Å"RAC†) and equipment rental (â€Å"Hertz Equipment Rental Company† or â€Å"HERC†). In 2005, it was estimated that RAC would comprise 81% of company revenues and HERC 19%. RAC was supported by a network of franchises that together with company-owned facilities operated in more than 7,600 airport and local locations throughout the world. The company led its competition in the airport car rental market in Europe with operations at 69 major airports. Hertz owned and leased cars from more than 30 manufacturers, most of which it had long-term leasing.

Atomic Structure

The Rutherford Model of the Atom 1. In 1911 Rutherford proposed the nuclear model of atomic structure. He suggested that an atom consists of a central nucleus (where most of the mass of the atom is concentrated) having a positive charge, surrounded by moving electrons carrying negative charge. Geiger and Marsden carried out an experiment to verify his proposal. The Geiger/Marsden a Particle Scattering Experiment 1. The apparatus is illustrated in the diagram below. | 2. The apparatus was in an evacuated container. The detector was a ZnS screen observed through a low power microscope. Each time an alpha particle hit the screen, a small flash of light was produced. 3. The detector was mounted on a support such that it could be rotated to measure the angular deflection of the alpha particles as they passed through a very thin sheet of gold. They measured the numbers of particles deflected through various angles. 4. It was found that most of ? particles pass through the gold undeflected; only a relatively small number are deflected (scattered). 5. Their results were considered to confirm Rutherford’s model and allowed them to estimate the size of the nucleus (greater than 10-14m) and the size of the atom (greater than10-10m), thus producing the slightly surprising conclusion the most of the space occupied by an atom is empty space! Closest Approach of an Alpha Particle to a Nucleus 1. For a given speed of alpha particle, the closest approach to a nucleus, rmin, will occur when the initial direction of motion of the particle is along the line joining the centers of particle and nucleus. 2. In this case, at the point of closest approach, the speed of the particle is zero. 3. As the particle approaches the nucleus, kinetic energy is being converted to electrical potential energy. K. E. lost = E. P. E. gained| 4. Electrical potential at a distance r from a point charge Q is given by | 5. For a nucleus of atomic number Z, the charge is Ze, where e is the magnitude of the charge on one proton (the same as the magnitude of the charge on an electron). 6. The magnitude of the charge on an alpha particle is 2e 7. Therefore, the energy, w, possessed by an alpha particle placed at distance, rmin, from a charge Ze is given by | 8. So, we have | which gives | Millikan’s Experiment to Measure the Charge on one Electron 1. The diagram below is a very simplified representation of Millikan’s apparatus. | 2. Small drops of oil were allowed to fall into a region between two metal plates, (the top plate had a hole in it). 3. Some of the drops became charged by friction. Further ionization was caused by a beam of x rays. 4. Millikan measured the terminal speed of a drop as it fell through the air, with V = 0. From this he could calculate the radius of the drop (and hence it’s mass). He then applied a voltage, V, to the plates and measured the new terminal speed of the same drop. 5. The change in the terminal speed of the drop was used to calculate the magnitude of the charge on the drop. 6. When many measurements had been done, all the charges were found to be integral multiples of a basic unit of charge, assumed to be the charge on one electron. 7. The value, e, is approximately -1. 6? 10-19 C. 8. A simplified version of Millikan’s experiment can be done by finding the voltage needed to just hold an oil drop stationary between the two plates. 9. Consider a drop having a charge q and mass m. | 10. If the drop is stationary, then the two forces acting on it have equal magnitudes. where E is the field strength. 11. Now, , where d is the distance between the plates, Therefore The Electron Volt (eV) 1. The electron Volt is a unit of work (or energy) much smaller than the Joule. 2. If 1electron moves through a potential difference of 1V then 1eV of work is done. Relation between the Joule and the electron Volt 1. Potential difference is work done per unit charge so, . 1 J is the work done when 1C moves through a p. d. of 1V. 2. The charge on one electron is -1. 6? 10-19 C. 3. Therefore 1eV is the work done when 1 ·6? 10-19C moves through a p. d. of 1V. This means that . 4. To convert energy in J to energy in eV, Experiment to measure the Charge to Mass Ratio of Electrons 1. The method proposed here is similar to that used by J. J. Thomson in 1897. Electrons in an evacuated tube (a â€Å"cathode ray tube†) are sent towards a region of space where there are electric and magnetic fields at 90 ° to each other. If the field strengths have a particular ratio then charged particles can pass through them undeflected. | | | 2. In the following analysis | | | V = voltage accelerating the electrons and producing the electric field between the plates| | v = speed of the electrons| | m = mass of one electron and e = charge on one electron| | E = electric field strength (E = where d = distance between plates)| | B = magnetic flux density| 3. If the electrons pass undeflected (magnitude of electric force equal to magnitude of magnetic force), then it can easily be shown that | 4. To find the speed of the electrons, remember that during acceleration the electrons are losing electric P. E. and gaining K. E. | | E. P. E. lost = K. E. gained| eV = 5. Therefore, | | | 6. Combining equations 1 and 2 to eliminate v gives, | | | | 7. Thus, using his experimental apparatus, Thomson was able to determine the charge-to-mass ratio of the electron. Today, the accepted value of is C kg-1. Atomic Structure The Rutherford Model of the Atom 1. In 1911 Rutherford proposed the nuclear model of atomic structure. He suggested that an atom consists of a central nucleus (where most of the mass of the atom is concentrated) having a positive charge, surrounded by moving electrons carrying negative charge. Geiger and Marsden carried out an experiment to verify his proposal. The Geiger/Marsden a Particle Scattering Experiment 1. The apparatus is illustrated in the diagram below. | 2. The apparatus was in an evacuated container. The detector was a ZnS screen observed through a low power microscope. Each time an alpha particle hit the screen, a small flash of light was produced. 3. The detector was mounted on a support such that it could be rotated to measure the angular deflection of the alpha particles as they passed through a very thin sheet of gold. They measured the numbers of particles deflected through various angles. 4. It was found that most of ? particles pass through the gold undeflected; only a relatively small number are deflected (scattered). 5. Their results were considered to confirm Rutherford’s model and allowed them to estimate the size of the nucleus (greater than 10-14m) and the size of the atom (greater than10-10m), thus producing the slightly surprising conclusion the most of the space occupied by an atom is empty space! Closest Approach of an Alpha Particle to a Nucleus 1. For a given speed of alpha particle, the closest approach to a nucleus, rmin, will occur when the initial direction of motion of the particle is along the line joining the centers of particle and nucleus. 2. In this case, at the point of closest approach, the speed of the particle is zero. 3. As the particle approaches the nucleus, kinetic energy is being converted to electrical potential energy. K. E. lost = E. P. E. gained| 4. Electrical potential at a distance r from a point charge Q is given by | 5. For a nucleus of atomic number Z, the charge is Ze, where e is the magnitude of the charge on one proton (the same as the magnitude of the charge on an electron). 6. The magnitude of the charge on an alpha particle is 2e 7. Therefore, the energy, w, possessed by an alpha particle placed at distance, rmin, from a charge Ze is given by | 8. So, we have | which gives | Millikan’s Experiment to Measure the Charge on one Electron 1. The diagram below is a very simplified representation of Millikan’s apparatus. | 2. Small drops of oil were allowed to fall into a region between two metal plates, (the top plate had a hole in it). 3. Some of the drops became charged by friction. Further ionization was caused by a beam of x rays. 4. Millikan measured the terminal speed of a drop as it fell through the air, with V = 0. From this he could calculate the radius of the drop (and hence it’s mass). He then applied a voltage, V, to the plates and measured the new terminal speed of the same drop. 5. The change in the terminal speed of the drop was used to calculate the magnitude of the charge on the drop. 6. When many measurements had been done, all the charges were found to be integral multiples of a basic unit of charge, assumed to be the charge on one electron. 7. The value, e, is approximately -1. 6? 10-19 C. 8. A simplified version of Millikan’s experiment can be done by finding the voltage needed to just hold an oil drop stationary between the two plates. 9. Consider a drop having a charge q and mass m. | 10. If the drop is stationary, then the two forces acting on it have equal magnitudes. where E is the field strength. 11. Now, , where d is the distance between the plates, Therefore The Electron Volt (eV) 1. The electron Volt is a unit of work (or energy) much smaller than the Joule. 2. If 1electron moves through a potential difference of 1V then 1eV of work is done. Relation between the Joule and the electron Volt 1. Potential difference is work done per unit charge so, . 1 J is the work done when 1C moves through a p. d. of 1V. 2. The charge on one electron is -1. 6? 10-19 C. 3. Therefore 1eV is the work done when 1 ·6? 10-19C moves through a p. d. of 1V. This means that . 4. To convert energy in J to energy in eV, Experiment to measure the Charge to Mass Ratio of Electrons 1. The method proposed here is similar to that used by J. J. Thomson in 1897. Electrons in an evacuated tube (a â€Å"cathode ray tube†) are sent towards a region of space where there are electric and magnetic fields at 90 ° to each other. If the field strengths have a particular ratio then charged particles can pass through them undeflected. | | | 2. In the following analysis | | | V = voltage accelerating the electrons and producing the electric field between the plates| | v = speed of the electrons| | m = mass of one electron and e = charge on one electron| | E = electric field strength (E = where d = distance between plates)| | B = magnetic flux density| 3. If the electrons pass undeflected (magnitude of electric force equal to magnitude of magnetic force), then it can easily be shown that | 4. To find the speed of the electrons, remember that during acceleration the electrons are losing electric P. E. and gaining K. E. | | E. P. E. lost = K. E. gained| eV = 5. Therefore, | | | 6. Combining equations 1 and 2 to eliminate v gives, | | | | 7. Thus, using his experimental apparatus, Thomson was able to determine the charge-to-mass ratio of the electron. Today, the accepted value of is C kg-1.

Censorship - Banning Books

Literature has always been an important part of human life. We use ink and paper to express our emotions; we sprinkle our souls on dry wood pulp. Writing has taken the form of liberation and pleasure since the beginning of written words. You can tell a story and make yourself a hero. You can live all your fantasies. You can explore all thoughts, emotions, emotions and share them with the outside world. But do not think you are jealous just because you can write. It does not matter who you are. Since pen was first put on paper, there was some form of censorship. The latest review is to prohibit books that are considered inappropriate. This type of behavior not only infringes upon the rights of American citizens, but also violates the student's right to study. Even though the government can try to ban all inappropriate books, the desire to read them will increase. Often times before the banning of family problems in books, the federal government tried to reduce the flow of inappropriat e information in the source, often forgotten. ACLU lawyer wrote as follows. The use of certain books such as The New Jim Crow is forbidden. For example, the use of hardcover books is prohibited. Statement continues: Several Caucasian abolitionists argue that they are fully naturalized as US citizens or send back the previous slave to Africa. Each immigrant family will offer 25 acres of vacant land and 10 acres of singles to Black Republic. Many people think that book reviews, tasks, and writing prohibitions are what happened in the distant past. This is certainly not the case, as you will see it from the ban on my recent book review. You may remember all the controversy about Harry Potter's book early in the 21st century. The age level of the book does not guarantee that someone will not try to review it. The focus seems to be more challenging to children and adolescent (YA) books than to others, but it always restricts access to books from certain adult books, usually high school p rofessors I am trying. Most complaints are made by parents and directed to public libraries and schools. The book does not seem to be an old concept for many people. But as it is getting old, censorship remains an important part of American literary culture. Banned books usually succeed at the level of young adult literature. Parents and other opponents use the review process to work to protect children and young people from books that they think are dangerous. - Books are forbidden in history / reviewed. For example, the Catholic Church created an index of the prohibition in the 16th century. The purpose of this index is to prevent ordinary people from reading books that violate the church doctrine. Several of Galileo's books are on this list. Everyone who reads or sells these books is severely punished, tortured, even even killed. However, even after 500 years writing prohibition has been done yet

Border Security Technology Deployment Case Study

Border Security Technology Deployment - Case Study Example SBInet as a system represents a complex case of conflicts of interests whereby: 1. National Security concerns are marred by political interference. This is especially evident in the statement acquired from the contractor. Another case of political intrusion is mentioned by the Border Patrol Station Chief.He claims that some Washington based politicians had the towers installed approximately three hundred and thirty feet apart from the border so as to avoid â€Å"sending the wrong message.† Their new positions consequently minimised their capabilities. The Customs and Border Protection (CBP) Sector Chief and the Border Patrol Station Chief cite the Native American tribal councils as a major problem. According to Border Patrol Station Chief, there is a quick change of governance in the Native American tribal councils and every new leadership undermines all agreements that had been made by the previous leadership. To make matters worse Unmanned Arial Vehicles are not allowed to fly over their territories without permission. Neither can the border patrols cr oss without their permission. According to the CBP, Sector Chief Native American land is a preferred route for illegal immigrants due to its inaccessibility. The only way to deal with politics in this situation is to have a regulatory committee that tables the grievances of any trouble departments especially due to external interference. This is because some untouchables may have their way in jeopardising the SBInet operations due to their lack of professionalism in the particular field that is border security (CNN, 2012). It will be necessary to have the committee immune to manipulation or even intimidation so as to have a dependable body that is fair to all. 2. Conflicts between involved parties undermine border protection There are conflicts between the Customs and Border Protection (CBP) and Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE). ICE, whose responsibility is to monitor, investigate and to resolve illegal immigration deeds seems to be at loggerheads with CBP. CBP whose respon sibility is to patrol the border and to monitor illegal entry, apprehend and detain the illegal immigrants claims that ICE does not share information related to their common line of work. It is clear that the line of work between the two departments is very much related hence there is a need for co-operation especially from ICE. The ICE department claims that when the Department of Homeland Security was introduced the ICE, and CBP became one and blames the CBP for trying to take their assets. Meanwhile, CBP claims that ICE does not share their sensor data. According to the Border Patrol Station Chief it is difficult for the right hand to work without knowing what the left hand is doing. In as much as that makes perfect sense it is clear that the individual departments are supposed to be independent of each other. Hence it would be wiser to either have both departments combined into one with all their duties synchronised. Another option would be having their duties defined into clear , separate undertakings such that there will be no inter dependence between each other. This suggestion is mainly based on the reality that there may be policies within the individual departments that may make the ability to inter relate somehow constrained. The inter relations between the departments should also be put down on paper so that future conflicts be avoided and procedures of interactions be common knowledge. 3. Lack of accountability and responsibility hence blame games Blames games are commonplace in SBInet with no particular individual taking responsibility for any faults. For example, the Border Patrol

Process Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Process Analysis - Essay Example This makes it hard to ignore a bad habit if its contents are still within your reach. Withdrawal of reinforcers means identifying and moving out the factors that trigger the bad habit, and encourage its existence. When bad habits are at their worst, this can make it very frustrating and complicated to quit. Similar to an addiction, the bad habit signals the brain and in your mind, the consequences you are receiving from it are good reinforcers, when in reality they are really hurting you in some way. On the other end, most habits start as early as childhood. Bad habits in children can happen more because of a lack in parental boundaries. Some bad habits develop as children. When the bad habit is not addressed properly, the mind sees no reason to stop the habit unless the individual makes the direct choice to quit. Although, the longer the habit goes on, the harder it is to let it go. Kids and teens need guidance and support from adults, whether it be family, friends, or teachers. When a bad habit such as becoming argumentative or lazy occurs, people gradually disregard that they are even doing anything bad, it becomes a natural part of their life, even when the bad habit leads to negative consequences. When kids and teens begin becoming lazy, argumentative, or start lying, if nothing is done to stop the habit it will reoccur whether they mean for it to happen or not, and will eventually happen subconsciously, taking a couple seconds or minutes until it is realized. It is almost as if the mind decides to complete the bad habit on its own, causing the individual to lose all control for the decision to complete the action, before it actually occurs. "Bad Habits: Why We Cant Stop | LiveScience." Current News on Space, Animals, Technology, Health, Environment, Culture and History | LiveScience. Web. 24 Aug. 2011. . Wood, Wendy, and David T. Neal. "A New Look at Habits and

Zero Tolerance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Zero Tolerance - Essay Example In Simon’s case, he had participated in contravening a company’s internet policy (Gerson, Parker, Volokh, Halloran, Cherkasky, 2006). Simon had utilized the company’s intranet to communicate with an unauthorized personality out of the network. The violation was gross since the company had sculptured clear conditions about the policy. This included clear indication of the relevant consequences. The management had notable controls in the same situation. To begin with, it laid a clear policy. This policy indicated that it banned use of the company’s internet and intranet in communication under unstated uses. The company also stated that unwarranted internet use and e-mailing could result into the termination of employment. In addition, the company employed strategic measures of terminating Simon’s tenure. The management made an indirect approach of firing Simon. This would be followed by an explanation of the act that led to the tenure termination. The re are controlling and coordination skills that are necessary in this situation. To begin with, it is vital that the company harnesses a proper communication channel. This is a system whereby each employee has adequate information about the company’s policies. In this perspective, the company can invest in an automatic e-mail system that updates on company’s policies and the consequences of breaching the provisions. Besides, meetings, between the management and employees, should be regular for physical information and discussion. In certain instances, zero tolerance policies might be stringent. In this sense, discussion can modify the policies to suit multiple scenarios. It is crucial that employees design and agree to zero tolerance policies. This would absolve the management from blame in cases of grim consequences to employees. The solution that the company employed had particular details. The management strove to strike a vital point in terminating Simon’s t enure. Companies would usually employ sane and rational employees. This means that it could apply formal means of communicating with an affected employee (Brooks & Dunn, 2009). Such communication would take the letter or e-mail method for information. Simon could not have possessed the option of not leaving the company. The use of guards was an informal sense of terminating Simon’s employment. It is devoid of modern managements skills since it seeks to be autocratic oriented. This is because the guards could have employed forceful means in case of resistance by Simon. Element of force is evident from the communication between the security officers and the management. The management was monitoring Simon’s reaction for an additional strategy. However, the company had a proper strategy of informing Simon. To begin with, this demonstrates of zero tolerance on certain violations. It also highlights that the other employees should educate themselves of company’s polic ies. However, the company can utilize other strategies. This pertains to drawing the same sense on a company’s reputation. The vital element in zero tolerance policies should regard their intentions. Zero tolerance policies should seek to highlight the sense of certain behavior. This is different from the focus of merely humiliating employees. Policies should concentrate on processes rather than the consequences of the same. In this view, the company could have employed an alternative strategy of terminating Simon’s benefits. Termination of benefits could achieve the orientation of the breach. In case of an internet’s condition, Simon could have been barred from the connection. Besides, the company could lock Simon from accessing certain information. Additionally,

Seeking Treatment In Houston Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Seeking Treatment In Houston - Essay Example The center is ranked number 1 in cancer care by the U.S. News and World report. The center is also the best ranked in the number of grants and research, having invested more than $647 million in 2002 (M.D. Anderson 1). The M.D. Anderson Cancer Center receives as many inbound patients as outbound patients in its cancer center. An independent body dealing with international patients traveling to the M.D. Anderson is necessary to deal with the issue arising from medical tourism. The hospital needs to set up a center that welcomes international patients, while offering consultancy services from skilled personnel not directly related to the center so as to not compromise advice given to patients. The center should also have interpreters and people whose main duty is to find accommodation and to explain the different types of services that can be offered. Challenges of Medical Tourism One of the main challenges of medical tourism is language barriers. According to Hodges, Turner and Kimbal l (256) most of the patients who seek medical tourism in the United States come from less developed countries that do not use English as the main language. This causes problems in interaction between the patients and medical practitioners. According to a study reported from the Center for Studying Health System Change in 2010, almost 50% of American Doctors stated that language differences can be the reason for hampering high quality care (Reschovsky and Boukus 2). Without dealing with these problem, doctors may be unable to correctly identify the problem hence introduce an inappropriate cancer treatment method. Patient may also be unable to choose between the various treatments available as they do not fully understand the advice given by healthcare practitioners. International patients may also be faced with lack of full disclosure about all the possible treatment techniques from the doctors (Stolley and Watson 46). This may not be due to malice but due to lack of understanding of the patient capabilities or want. Doctors may also decide to choose a particular course of treatment for the patient without consulting the patient fully. Patients, especially those from poor countries, may lack enough knowledge about treatment techniques available thus following the advice they received from doctors in their home countries without fully appreciating the advanced systems of M.D Anderson Cancer Center. Another problem patients from abroad face is difficulty in managing resources especially finances (Stolley and Watson 126). Due to the time taken by cancer treatment courses, patients have to live temporarily in the United States. This means they have to find housing, food, utilities and other needs in a country that is foreign to them. Patients also have to contend with medical bills that range from treatment courses to medicine during this time. While the patient may have saved some money for the treatment, it is usually very likely that they undermine other expense s involved in living in a foreign country. A suitable solution for this problem has to be availed so as to ensure that the patient is able to smoothly maneuver during the cancer treatment period. With help in the management of finances, patients may drop

The Taboo of Human Sexuality in the African American Christian Dissertation

The Taboo of Human Sexuality in the African American Christian Community - Dissertation Example The assumption that the African American body is derived of purposed majesty is an argument that has been challenged by years of social evolution and individual interpretations of religious scriptures. Making the connection to the physical body and to the body of Christ, in the black community, is a step forward in securing positive regard towards black sexuality; though this connection to theological ideals is often challenged even within the African American culture. So, from where are the assumptions of unifying sexuality and divinity? Outside of the cultural expectations of sexuality lies the affirmation of the physical body as a gift from God, offered in the text of the Christian Bible. In the very beginning of the Bible, God clearly states the purpose of human sexuality. It was his deliberate, considered choice to make us complete with sex organs and equipped for sexual intercourse. However, historical symbolism and deviations from solid Christian philosophy created negative connotations of the African American community as Christian literature separated white from black as a distinction between good and evil. The depiction of the devil as "The Black One"†¦and the typological "blackening" of those believers (as) influenced by evil" set the tone for the cultural view of blacks as a representation of anti-religion. Moral implications of outspoken human sexuality formulate the idea that sexuality is a taboo subject, resultant of misconceptions, scriptural misinterpretations, and the historical determination in the dominant white cultures view that the African American is a lesser entity.

Conflict Analysis Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Conflict Analysis - Assignment Example Tim is an Asian and Josh is the head boy at out campus. People around us became interested and formed two groups hooting and cheering, if one placed a valid point better than the other. I happened to realize that at national level, our foreign exchange students face discriminating attitude from most of us. They are unacceptable and have to prove themselves at every stage that they are worthy of being involved and being a friend. The surface problem seems like a simple idea of beating out the other; wittily. On the other hand it became quite evident to me that they have fixed mind set as to where each one stands in a society. To manage disagreements, any one of the strategies could be applied by both to resolve their dispute. Josh was competing and wanted to prove his superiority as an inborn and as a most popular boy around. However, Tim was accommodating Josh’s viewpoints initially and later on competing in the similar manner. The discussion took a personal turn, both of them started to accuse and humiliate each other .Their friendship was shattered in a nick of time. Only if they respected each other’s views and left the personal accusation aside th e situation would have been different. My observation was that power, expectations, situation, communicational skill and above of all self-concept play vital role in any conflict. We need to tackle people and their feelings and views prudently not judgmentally. Keeping in mind their background and sensitivity about certain matters because issues can be resolved and viewpoints can be changed by time, but one can not restore a relationship in its fullest form. A well-cultivated critical thinker keeps potential consequences in mind and figures solutions to complex problems. There should be open mindedness and well reasoned conclusions with practical implications as well regarding the

The major reasons for the declining in communal life in the pacific Essay Example for Free

The major reasons for the declining in communal life in the pacific Essay Below is a free essay on Discuss The Major Reasons For The Decline Of Commu from Anti Essays, your source for free research papers, essays, and term paper examples. Plan Title: Discuss the major reasons for the decline of communal life in the Pacific. C: Decline in Communal Life L: Reasons; Pacific D: Argue Context: Every society in the Pacific searches for ways to maintain their inherited ways of life and preserve their unique culture Subject: Communal Life Limited Subject: Decline in Communal life in the Pacific Issue: What are the major reasons for the decline in communal life in the Pacific? Thesis statement: The major reasons for the decline in communal life in the Pacific are threefold: Sociocultural evolution, Changes in life style and Economical issues. Supports for the thesis: Main idea 1: Sociocultural evolution One of the foremost reasons for the decline in communal life in the Pacific is the sociocultural evolution Supporting idea a: Education The primary sociocultural reason for the decline of communal life in the Pacific is education Details: Human/women/children rights freedom generation gap Supporting idea b: Greed and self interest The next sociocultural reason for the decline in communal life in the Pacific is greed and self-interest Details: Demand for ownership of land Poor leaders making unreliable decisions that affect everybody in the communal areas people are more concerned about their own family and their needs and wants Main idea 2: Changes in lifestyle Secondly, the reason for the decline in communal life in the Pacific is due to the changes in lifestyle of people in communal settlements. Supporting idea a: Loss of values The most basic change in lifestyle reason for the decline in communal life in the Pacific is the loss of values Details: Intermarriages individualism Conflicts of interest Supporting idea b: Westernization and Mass media Likewise, another change in lifestyle reason for the decline in communal life in the Pacific is the effects of mass media and westernization Details: Changes in

The Honeys Learning Cycle Nursing Essay

The Honeys Learning Cycle Nursing Essay This essay will discuss why I think an understanding of learning styles is useful to the student nurse by focusing on reflection using the Honeys learning cycle and how it helps to demonstrate the importance of recognising ones learning styles. It will provide an understanding of learning and theories of learning. It will also discuss my dominant learning style and how I will develop an aspect of my weaker style to support my learning process on the programme. For the student nurse to understand and identify their learning style, he or she has to understand the theories of learning. Gould, J. (2009) stated that different theorists will have different ideas as to what constitutes learning and different arguments and evidence to support their position. Learning has so many definitions. Learning can be defined in various ways depending on whether one is focusing on learning as an internal process or one is thinking of learning as a series of external inputs and output. Since there is no simple way to define learning, I would describe learning as the process of acquiring, interpreting and understanding information through various ways at any place and given time such as life experiences, formal and informal education. Therefore, learning can be described as an input, process and product. Peter honey (2006) described learning as a skill that needs to be consciously reviewed and developed. Pavlov (1927) and Skinner (1953) used the behaviourist approach to establish that learning is a change in behaviour brought about by some action or experience. (Cited by Gould Jim, 2009). From a cognitive perspective, learning can be defined as a change in cognitive structures; the way in which we perceive events and organise experiences to arrive at an understanding. (Gould Jim p 46). Eysenck and keane (2005) states that learning is concerned with the internal process of the environment, and deciding what action might be appropriate. Many researchers have adopted Kolbs (1976) experiential learning theory and applied it to different educational areas because it explains more about the learning theory. It is useful for the student nurse to familiarise ones self with the learning cycle, as it helps to understand the process of learning. Peter Honeys learning cycle suggests that we learn through an experience, but only if we process or interpret the experience and make sense of it. These can be done by following the stages of the learning cycle which includes having an experience, reviewing the experience and planning the next step. For instance when the student nurse goes on placement, one is expected to adhere to the necessary nursing midwifery code of conduct by delivering effective and quality care. To do this, one has to reflect on ways to develop new skills and ways do things differently. For example, Mr Y made a complaint that your level of communication is poor. To reflect on the situation, review the experie nce you had with Mr Y by asking yourself what you did wrong and observe the way your colleagues, mentor and other healthcare workers communicate with other patients. Then focus on the differences you observed between the way you and your mentor approached the patient. And conclude by learning what your mentor did differently e.g body language, tone, speech, good eye level. One has to have critical thinking skill in order to be able reflect on experiences (p.25). Moons (2008) states that critical thinking for us is a process, where different information is gathered, sifted, synthesised and evaluated, in order to understand a subject. He went on to suggest that the ability of a nurse to think critically will enable the nurse to function as a knowledgeable doer i.e. someone who selects, combines, judges and uses information in order to proceed in a professional manner. (Cited by bob p.8.) Bob argued that reflection is a process whereby experience is examined in ways that give meaning to interactions. Therefore, the student nurse has to evaluate and understand the subject or experience before he or she interprets it. The learning cycle can begin at any one of the four points and it should be approached as a continuous process since the four stages of the learning cycle are mutually dependent on another (Honey 2006 p.6.) People have preferences for everything. Since individuals learn at different rates and in different ways, there is a very high possibility that they would have a preferred style or way of learning. Learning styles are the preferred ways we perceive and interact to the various elements and in any learning situation. Different things affect the way we learn e.g. background, culture, religion etc. For example some students enjoy listening to a lecture and making their own notes, while others who also enjoy listening to the lecture prefer to have handouts to read at a later time. Peter honey identified four main learning style preferences. These learning styles include activist, reflector, pragmatist and theorist. Since most people develop strategies to help cope with studies and work, it is important for the student nurse to recognise ones learning styles or methods in order to maximise the way one will learn. Learning style preferences influence the way a student responds to the learning opportunities within any educational experience and affects their ability to direct their own learning. (Oshea, 2003). Our preferred style of learning influences the way one will tend to organise and present information. Student nurses will find understanding learning styles useful because it will help improve their skills in placement or in their future nursing career by broadening their repertoire. Recently, it has been established that nurses who want to specialise in areas require a broad skill base involving advanced technical expertise, critical thinking, communication, leadership and motivation, computer literacy and cultural sensitivity (Bechtel et al 1999). Recognising ones learning style encourages the student nurse to reflect and learn from any experience one might face during practice placement and also, enable the student nurse to create ways of doing things differently and better if the experience were to happen again. Frankel, A.  (2009)  stated that a skilled and competent workforce ensures patient safety, and will be able to recognise and respond to clinical need more appropriately. Awareness of ones learning style allows one to learn at best whether learning is taking place in the classroom or at placement. Terry (2001) stated that learning styles and the promotion of effective learning environments have been a focus of research for many decades (cited by Wetzig 2004 p.2). According to (Frankel 2009) study, the ability to learn, understand, interpret and then apply learning to practice has a significant impact on delivering effective clinical care. The student nurse is always faced with different challenges or experiences in placement; it is therefore the responsibility of the student nurse to reflect on his or her role during placement. This process is called reflection on action (evaluation) and reflection in action (decision making). Evidence suggests that through improving students awareness of their own learning style, they are better able to take responsibility for their own learning, which leads to improved learning outcomes (Fritz 2002). It is also the responsibility of the student nurse to work alongside the mentor and other health care workers to maximise ones potential. The literature review according to (Frankel 2009) supports the view that consideration for individual learning styles is fundamental in designing effective training programmes and that learning is a key concept and value which underpins nursing and its development. Kolb (1984) identified four distinct learning styles based on a four-stage learning cycle. Building on Kolbs work, Honey (2006) developed the Learning Styles Questionnaire to help identify ones learning style. Using the learning style questionnaire (Honey, 2006), I have been able to identify my learning styles as a theorist and reflector because these are the best ways am able to learn new things or skills. My dominant learning styles emerged after completing the questionnaire, my highest overall score (10) was for the Theorist category, these indicates my dominant learning style, while, the reflector category represents my predominant learning style. I believe these findings to be true as I am able to remember or visualise ideas in my head from diagrams, tables and mind maps. I take thorough notes in lectures and when studying textbooks and I usually study better by myself. As a reflector, I like to think and look at a situation from different perspectives before taking any action. I am always quiet and always try to listen attentively in order to grasp what the teacher is saying. Researching and reviewing information carefully has always been my way of study before coming to any conclusions or decisions. I was also able to identify my weaker styles as an activist and pragmatist. Knowing my underutilised learning style can help me as a student nurse to get the necessary help I require and to undertake activities to develop the weaker learning style. Honey (2006) argued the best learners are equally comfortable with all the stages in the learning cycle. Therefore, it is important to strengthen ones weaker styles to be able to learn as whole because having preferences can lead to distortions. Cottrell (2003) advises that whether you discover that you have a learning style preference or not, it may change because we are adaptable creatures (cited by davis Nicholas p.8). Effective learners make full use of their dominant preferences, while also developing and acquiring useful features from their underutilised styles. In nursing, learning occurs best in practice by preparing oneself to undertake other learning styles such as reflecting on the experience you had in placement. This will enable the student nurse to make the most out of the experience. (Nicola p.80). As a student nurse, my learning occurs both in the university and within practice, so I need to be prepared to learn in more than one way. I will consider investing more time and energy in the parts of the learning cycle that I am least comfortable with. I will ensure that I am aware of the activities that both an activist and a pragmatist will learn best and least from. The ways to strengthen my activist style is by taking calculated risk, increasing my tolerance for spontaneity and trying out different ways of doing things, while the ways to strengthen my pragmatist style is by being realistic, exploring new ideas and judging the usefulness of ideas based on practicality. I will also seek for help and support from the university and course tutor.

Devil on the Cross by Ngugi wa Thiong’o Essays -- African Authors Ken

Devil on the Cross was written by Ngugi while he was imprisoned. He was held without trail by a government that tried to silence him. The out come was a book that was â€Å"One of the century’s greatest novels† by the Tribune. In the following passages I plan to explain the meaning of four characters that are affected by capital class. The speaker of the passage â€Å"She sat down on a box†¦Ã¢â‚¬  is the gorgeous protagonist; Jacinta Wariinga. Jacinta Wariinga is a young beautiful black woman who easily stops â€Å"men in their tracks.† She is like Thanksgiving dinner, a feast for the eyes. Jacinta moves with grace when she is without self-conscious. Underneath all her beauty, she is a suicidal person who hates her blackness. Jacinta truly hates her blackness because she uses â€Å"skin-lightening creams.† The skin-lightening cream rejects her skin color because the cream knows â€Å"that which is born black can never be white†. She clearly suffers from Cultural Imperialism. Cultural Imperialism has wiped out the music, culture and art many. The military has taken over lands for their own personal use, economic stability can not be reached between classes because the gap between the rich and poor has increased and political power is the only thing of importance. The people are of no impo rtance because if they were better living conditions and necessary items would be more accessible. Jacintas’ color coated thinking has led her to believe â€Å"that her appearance [is] the root cause of all her problems.† Jacinta analysis’s her many problems with a small mirror. Jacinta is using a small mirror for petty problems when she needs to be using a mirror like the one in my room, 7feet tall by 5 feet wide. With that mirror she can examine all the cultural imperialism flaws and not just her materialistic problems. The small mirror depicts her problems to be petty. If Jacinta truly wanted to analyze all of her problems she should a use a mirror like the one in my room, 5’ by 7’, she can clearly notice all of her flaws. Ngugi, clearly tried to show that her problems are petty because the size of the mirror. The speaker of the passage â€Å"Have I been on the road all this time†¦Ã¢â‚¬  is Robin Mwaura the â€Å"rapper.† Robin Mwaura is a false artist. He is a trickster, a con artist, in today’s society Robin Mwaura would is considered a rapper, a great one at that. Mwaura would be an excellent rapper because h... ...He thinks he does, but in reality he doesn’t. Professor Gatuirira is trying to create a lie, but he doesn’t know he is. Music can create art â€Å"for many human voices† when it is true. The art the professor is trying to create is false. It is a cross over from American culture to African culture. He has â€Å"yet found the tune† because it is all white wash. Nothing that the professor studies to create his national anthem is relevant to his current situation. Even though he thinks it is right to create a national anthem, there is a flipside to this. That reality that the professor fails to see includes factions and class struggle. Africa is plagued by gender and sexism. It makes it difficulty for women to find jobs. The exploitation of middle and lower class by the upper class is selfishness. The selfishness leads to high corruption because everyone is trying to get rich. Nothing of what the professor wants the people to sing is true. Devil on the Cross shows the affects of the capital class. The age of Enlightenment dealt with reason and progress. Where the capital class tries to roadblock the ideas of the age of Enlightenment, it is up to the people to pick up the ball and succeed!

Psychological Conflicts In Literature(2) :: essays research papers

Every story has a conflict. A conflict is a disagreement, which usually provides the plot for a story. The conflict is the basis for everything else included in the work of literature. Usually a person reads the story to see how a conflict is developed and then resolved. This essay, as already states, will be about psychological conflicts. In the epic tale, The Lord of the Rings by J. R. R. Tolkien, there are many psychological conflicts involved that all weave together. The conflict I want to focus on, though, is the conflict between the character Boromir and his inner desire to use the Ring for the greater good of his kingdom, namely himself. At first glance, he seems a harmless man. But as the story progresses, so does his infatuation with the Ring. â€Å"†¦And Sam saw that while the others restrained themselves and did not stare at him, the eyes of Boromir followed Frodo intently, until he passed out of sight in the trees at the foot of Amon Hen.† Boromir was fighting his mind, deciding right then and there to seize the ring from Frodo. He followed Frodo and at the top of Amon Hen began to talk to him, taking on the guise of a friend. But suddenly he snatched for the Ring, failed in his attempt, and ultimately died valiantly defending Merry and Pippin, two other hobbits, from orcs. He redeemed himself a t the end, but the harm was already done. He had lost the battle with his conscious, and in doing so made the rest of the journey so much more difficult for the rest of the Fellowship. Another great example of a psychological conflict is in the story â€Å"Leiningen Versus the Ants† by Carl Stephenson. Leiningen’s Brazilian plantation was being attacked by a huge host of army ants. At first glance, the major conflict seems to be an environmental type, man pitted against his environment. But if you look deeper, you will find that the main conflict is between Leiningen and his pride-filled mind. He knew he was a smart man, and he thought that by using his intellect he would be able to keep the ants away. This quote is a good illustration of Leiningen’s pride, his ‘enormous intellect’. â€Å"Even here in this Brazilian wilderness, his brain had triumphed over every difficulty and danger it had so far encountered. First he had vanquished primal forces by cunning and organization, then he had enlisted the resources of modern science to increase miraculously the yield of his plantation.

The Wild West in the 1800s :: essays research papers

Sanitary conditions in the West were practically non-existent. In the cities, horse manure covered the streets. Housewives emptied garbage, dishwater, and chamber pots into the middle of the city streets where free-roaming pigs devoured the waste. The pigs left their urine and feces on the streets. It was not easy to wash clothes. Many people had clothes splattered with manure, mud, sweat, and tobacco juice. Privies, or necessary houses were often to close to the homes with a very noticeable odor on hot and/or windy days. If a family had a kitchen, all the members washed at the sink each day, without soap, rubbing the dirt off with a coarse towel. Eventually, many cold bedrooms had a basin, ewer (pitcher), cup, and cupboard chamber pot. Bed bugs and fleas covered many of the travelers’ beds. â€Å"Isaac Weld saw filthy beds swarming with bugs.† These insects followed the travelers, crawling on their clothes and skin. Alcohol consumption was at an all time high at the late 1820s. â€Å"Elbridge Boyden, architect and builder, said that alcohol was used as commonly as the food we ate.† It was a symbol of hospitality and fellowship. Drinking and fighting (a knock-down) went together. The violent fights involved â€Å"gouging,† in which a person looses an eye. Early America was sexually active. One third of the brides were pregnant on their wedding day. Sexual relations were a part of courtship. â€Å"Bundling was the custom that allowed couples to sleep on the same bed without undressing.† â€Å"Erastus Worthington, a local historian, noticed the custom in 1828, of females admitting young men to their beds, who sought their company in marriage.† In large cities, prostitution became more common and was priced according to location. Tobacco usage was wide spread because it was cheap, homegrown, and duty free. Short, thick, clay pipes were used, although snuff and powdered tobacco were inhaled.

Globalization of the world Essay

Cosmetic surgery is one of surgical and medical techniques to improve physical appearances. It is reserving normal appearance, repairing it or enhancing it exceeds the usual physical looks with regard to some aesthetic essence. A shocking data shows that a lot of teenagers, 18-and-unders, had gone under the knife. According to the American Society of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgeons (ASPS), more than 219,000 cosmetic procedures were done on patients aged 18 and younger in 2008 (Mann, 2011). Todays society really concerns about this issue since the age of 18 and under are considered still too young to do procedures. Nowadays, it is very common to have a cosmetic surgery done in order to improve and enhance physical appearances or any other so-called imperfections. People choose to go under the knife as an easy way out. Nips and tucks are apparently increasing everywhere. The top 7 countries with most cosmetic surgery are: South Korea, Greece, Italy, Brazil, Colombia, The USA, and Taiwan (Conley, 2012). In South Korea, 41.1 percent of teens are willing to do plastic surgery for beauty. They have a desire to look better; it even can be an obsession. Many kids at the age of 14 would like to have an â€Å"eye jobs†, a surgery to have bigger eyes, as their graduation gift from their parents (Dubroff, 2011). In the United States of America, those teenagers who are unhappy and not satisfied with their physical looks choose to change them permanently through the risky and dangerous cosmetic surgery (Mann, 2001). In 2009, about 8,000 girls age 13 to 19 had their breasts enlarged last year, accordi ng to the American Society of Plastic Surgeons. And 2,953 of them were age 18 and younger (Thompson, 2010). After going through so many frightening news about teenagers with their obsessions to look good until they choose cosmetic surgery and the dangers that can come along, the society starts questioning, should cosmetic surgery be banned among teenagers, 18-and-under? This question has resulted in dissimilar views on this issue and certainly causes a series of arguments from both sides of the stand. The purpose of this research is to show that cosmetic surgery should indeed be banned among teenagers due to its danger and teenagers are unaware to evaluate risks. Moreover, at young age, teenagers should focus on school and their future. Having cosmetic surgery done for unnecessary reasons is non-essential. This report will clearly point out why cosmetic surgery should be banned among teenagers by providing several evidences to reinforce this belief. 2.0 BODY OF REPORT 2.1 Cosmetic Surgery is Highly Dangerous Going under the knife is very risky and dangerous, but people don’t seem to be aware nor take into consideration about the danger. Psychologists and surgeons are afraid that many patients do not completely understand and know the potential risks of the operations (Sheng, 2012). Cosmetic surgery and its risks and dangers come in one package, so it is prominent for those who are thinking to go under the knife to acknowledge them. The major risk or danger that are associated with cosmetic surgery is that pain and discomfort (Zemanta, 2013). Even though not every cosmetic surgery procedure leads to lack of physical comfort and ache, but many of them do. Although the patients’ ache and discomfort can be treated with pain medicines that they can get without prescription or an ice pack, it may disturb the patients’ daily activities. Moreover, the pain may be really painful that those teenagers cannot bear and end up won’t not be able to come to school to study. The chance that complication may be the result of cosmetic surgery is another danger (Zemanta, 2013). Most patients do not necessarily consider that complications may arise. When anesthesia is given to a patient, there is a possibility that the anesthesia used to put the patient to sleep for the procedure, could give a reaction to the patient (Palmer, 2006). Even though this happens relatively rare, it’s able to be life-threatening and even deadly. One famous case is the death of Kanye West’s Mother. She actually died from the anesthesia (Adato, 2007). Another certain thing that teenagers should know about what can happen if they are undergoing cosmetic surgery is, at the age of 18 and below, the body has not yet matured to its final shape (Mann, 2011). Procedures like breast enlargement, liposuction, and breast reduction are surgeries that should wait until reaching adulthood. Until 18, breasts might not be fully-grown, and saline-filled breast implants (the type typically used for cosmetic enhancements) aren’t even permitted for under-18s (DiscoveryHealth.com, 2012). Having cosmetic surgery at young age may give them more risks. The scariest risk a patient should take into his/her consideration to have a cosmetic surgery procedure is death. Cosmetic surgery has been proven a killer. One of the famous cases is Stephanie Kuleba’s case. She was a pretty and popular girl who went for a breast augmentation. She died after suffering from the complications (Rivero, 2008). 1 in 1000 cosmetic surgery procedures in the United State of America results in complications, which lead to everlasting injury. Studies show that 7 to 12 percent of cosmetic surgery patients die from the procedure. 20 percent of patients suffer from injection and bleeding (Top 10 Hidden Dangers Of Cosmetic Surgery, n.d.). Hence, teenagers should be aware that cosmetic surgery is not as safe as most people believe it to be. Although the risks and dangers that come together with cosmetic surgery have been known, there are quite a number of people who are confident that cosmetic surgery is becoming safer and safer due to the increasingly strict policies and the improvement in technology (McGilchrist, 2011). They claim that todays regulations and policies for such operation are becoming more strict so it can only be done by professionals thus it is able to minimize the danger. Conversely, this argument is not completely true. The data and survey are shown and it only shows less than 25%, but it is still a big deal. There is always that chance to become a cosmetic surgery death statistic. The American Society of Plastic Surgeons is strongly against the idea of teenagers younger than 18 undergo plastic surgery (Rivero, 2008). From every aspect, regardless to nowadays-cosmetic surgery’s safety that is becoming safer so there will be less risks and dangers, cosmetic surgery among teenagers is still a high-risk and dangerous thing. The evidence in this research obviously shows that there are a lot of teenagers have to suffer the bleeding and other complications that can lead them to the death after undergoing cosmetic surgery. A teenager’s live and future are priceless and worth more than $3,500 cosmetic surgery. 2.2 Teenagers Are Unaware of Evaluating Risks Teen or adolescence is a transitional stage of physical and psychological human development (Merriam-Webster, 2012). It is the stage when a teenager is too mature to be called and treated as a kid yet too young to be called as an adult. Teens are also known to be reckless, moody, impulsive, insecure, rebellious, and argumentative (Pickrell, 2006). They might think they are mature enough to make any decisions for themselves but sadly sometimes teenagers do not think further regarding the consequences of their actions. There is a high peer pressure that boosts them to be unafraid of doing risky things just to fit it and be accepted. Going through having doubts and insecurities about their body image is also a part of growing up that most teenagers experience. The society puts a huge significance on physical attractiveness (Wansbrough, 2013). Peer pressure to look â€Å"normal† and â€Å"good† is the driving force teens are interested in cosmetic surgery (Keyes, 2011). Britanni, a girl who had her breast implants on the age of 18 said â€Å"I didn’t have large breasts when I was younger, and all my friends did†¦I felt very self conscious about it.† (Wallace, 2012). 67% of average 14 years of age girls quizzed said the pressure is from boys and celebrities with perfect bodies (BBC News, 2005). Ms Horton said that the infinite parade of thin yet curvy, surgically-enhanced celebrities has made young girls obsessed with their own normal lumpy, bumpy bodies. More over, boys’ expectations on their girlfriends to look like the perfect celebrity body model are also the pressures (BBC News, 2005). Todays society introduces the miracle-makers as known as cosmetic surgery to teens at a young age as seeing the fact that according to the American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, there are more than 223,000 cosmetic procedures were performed on patients whose age were between thirteen to eighteen years old for example; breast augmentation, liposuction, breast lifts, tummy tucks, and nose reshaping (Olding & Zuckerman, 2004). It is undeniable, teen cosmetic surgery is on the rise. Unfortunately, the idea of having good physical appearance by going under the knife is not coupled by considering and evaluating the risks. Youngsters are not alert to the undeniable lasting health consequences of smoking, drinking alcohol, tanning and other dangerous behaviors, and nor likely to aware of the risks of cosmetic surgery (Keyes, 2011). They only see the magical outcome of cosmetic surgery as seen on celebrities on the cover of glossy magazines with their perfect breast, bottoms, lips, n ose, eyes and everything (BBC News, 2005). They likely do not take into account the danger and risks of cosmetic surgery. They would likely to only believe that cosmetic surgery is the only way out to obtain physical perfection as the society ‘demand’. They are unable to evaluate risks as well as an adult. The scientists discovered that the teen’s brain is more sensitive to the rewarding indicators it gets when something better than expected happens. A nerve-signaling molecule that helps the brain in processing rewards and can be involved in addictions is called dopamine. The more dopamine flowing in the brain, the more likely a teenager to feel a risky behavior is more rewarding if it ends well, than it might seem to a child or adult (Discovery, 2013). However, some parties are against this idea. They claim that teenagers have every right to do whatever they want to do with their bodies. They should be able to make their own decision. To some extend, yes this is true. As humans, teenagers have the freedom to do anything as they please, but when it comes to do cosmetic surgery procedures, there are a lot to take into consideration as it will affect their physical looks permanently. The outcomes of cosmetic surgery are also various (BBC News, 2005). It can be just as what they expected but also can be far from their expectations. Cosmetic surgery is a big deal and teenagers are not reliable enough to make the decision. Teenagers are greatly affected by what they see in the media. They undergo unnecessary cosmetic surgeries to achieve the Barbie standard, but sometimes resulting in regret. In 2003, it was estimated that fifteen percent of teenage cosmetic surgeries in the US was due to misinformed decisions (Olding & Zuckerman, 2004). Hence, it’s clearly shown from the facts, cosmetic surgery should be banned because many teenagers are unaware of evaluating the risks. Thus, a ban on teenagers of 18 and below should be put into place. 2.3 Teenagers Should Focus On Their Future Teen is the stage where the future is based on because in this stage teenagers are on their pursuit of anything they want to be. Most teenagers have goals to be achieved someday in the future. Achieving those goals and making dreams come true are more important and useful instead of enhancing physical appearances, which only skin deep. The significance of education can be explained very easy. Without education, it is difficult for human beings to survive properly. Through education, one’s potential can be utilized to maximum extent. Education teaches men how to make decision, how to work properly, and how to think. Through education alone can make separate identity. It became a necessity just like foods, clothes, and shelter. It is very usual for teenagers to wonder how their career will be. In the future, most people want to own a car, a house, and have family. Each of these things would not be easy to afford on a minimum wage salary. Many drop-outs have earned minimum wage and live just above the poverty line (Bloom & Haskins, 2010). Therefore, through higher education, people will be brought to a bigger career opportunities and a higher payroll. Education is a productive and beneficial aspect in one’s life. The training of a human mind is not complete without education. All these facts clearly shows that there are many other things that are more important to be concerned about instead of enhancing physical appearances. Moreover, plastic surgery, just like drugs, alcohol, and cigarettes, it can be addictive especially if a patient starts at a young age (Pruitt, 2009). According to Tom Horvath, addiction is marked by three fundamental symptoms: repeated involvement in an activity; an act brought on by cravings; and one done despite negative consequences (Rettner, 2010). Most patients who have undergone cosmetic surgery and had a good outcome would most likely to go for another procedures hence it becomes continual. This could probably lead to even more demand for a nip here and a tuck there (Pruitt, 2009). One thing that most teenagers tend to forget these days is beauty is only skin-deep. What’s within them, which is their personality are more important than the physical looks. Beauty cannot be quantified or objectively measured; it is the result of the judgments of others. The concept is difficult to define, as it is equated with different, sometimes contradictory, ideas. When people are asked to define beauty, they tend to mention abstract, personal qualities rather than external, quantifiable ones (Freedman, 1986; Hatfield & Sprecher, 1986). Beauty ideals are created and maintained by society’s elite (Saltzberg & Chrisler, 1995). This does not mean that physical looks are not important, but this means that it’s not the most important thing and many other things are more important than that. Thus, it is wiser to concern more about the future than the physical looks. Hence, cosmetic surgery should be banned among teenagers. 3.0 RECOMMENDATION Look at how critical this issue at hand is, what the government should do is to establish age limitation to undergo plastic surgery. This plastic surgery refers to the unnecessary one not the reconstructive plastic surgery. Hence, only those who are ready physically and mentally can undergo cosmetic surgery procedures. Moreover, after going through so many researches, the root of teen’s cosmetic surgery has been discovered. It is low self-esteem due to society pressure on physical looks. Thus, creating a platform where teenagers are encouraged to showcase their skills and talents is important. Such skills and talents eventually will be an asset that they are proud of. Instead of being acknowledged by their peers through their looks, they could actually gain the acknowledgment through their achievement. In a nutshell, these achievements will replace the needs to polish their appearance in particular by having cosmetic surgery. Moreover, teenagers also should be educated how scary and dangerous the dangers of cosmetic surgery that’s why it requires a lot of thinking and taking all consequences into account when making decision to go under the knife. 4.0 CONCLUSION As it can clearly be seen, teen cosmetic surgery is highly dangerous and risky as the patient has a great possibility to suffer from bleeding and complications after doing the procedures. This may cause them to lose their lives. Moreover, teenagers are likely unrealistic decision makers because they do not take into account further bad possibilities that may occur from post cosmetic surgery. Nevertheless, as a teenager, one should focus and be putting their concentration on building up their future and achieving long-term goals instead of enhancing their physical appearances. Thus, it is prominent to ban unnecessary cosmetic surgery among teenagers. Although there is a great improvement in technology and teenagers have their rights to do anything they want to do, there are still many possibilities a patient to die from the procedures. So, it is wiser to give the teenagers some kind of protection by banning teen cosmetic surgery. References BBC News. (2005). 40% of teens want plastic surgery. Retrieved from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4147961.stm Bloom, D. & Haskins, R. 2010. Helping High School Drop-Outs Improve Their Prospect. Retrieved from http://www.brookings.edu/research/papers/2010/04/27-helping-dropouts-haskins Conley, Mikaela. (2012). Nip/Tuck Nations: 7 Countries with Most Cosmetic Surgery. Retrieved from http://abcnews.go.com/Health/niptuck-nations-countries-cosmetic-surgery/story?id=16205231 Discovery. (2013). Teen brain wired to take risks. Retrieved from http://news.discovery.com/human/teenager-brain-risky-behavior.htm DiscoveryHealth.com Writers. (n.d.). Are teens too young to go under the

It Report on Networking

CHAPTER ONE 1. 0INTRODUCTION 1. 1BACKGROUND SIWES was established by ITF in 1973 to solve the problem of lack of adequate practical skills preparatory for employment in industries by Nigerian graduates of tertiary institutions. The Scheme exposes students to industry based skills necessary for a smooth transition from the classroom to the world of work. It affords students of tertiary institutions the opportunity of being familiarized and exposed to the needed experience in handling machinery and equipment which are usually not available in the educational institutions.Participation in Industrial Training is a well-known educational strategy. Classroom studies are integrated with learning through hands-on work experiences in a field related to the student’s academic major and career goals. Successful internships foster an experiential learning process that not only promotes career preparation but provides opportunities for learners to develop skills necessary to become leaders in their chosen professions. One of the primary goals of the SIWES is to help students integrate leadership development into the experiential learning process.Students are expected to learn and develop basic non-profit leadership skills through a mentoring relationship with innovative non-profit leaders. By integrating leadership development activities into the Industrial Training experience, we hope to encourage students to actively engage in non-profit management as a professional career objective. However, the effectiveness of the SIWES experience will have varying outcomes based upon the individual student, the work assignment, and the supervisor/mentor requirements.It is vital that each internship position description includes specific, written learning objectives to ensure leadership skill development is incorporated. Participation in SIWES has become a necessary pre-condition for the award of Diploma and Degree certificates in specific disciplines in most institutions of hig her learning in the country, in accordance with the education policy of government. Operators-The ITF, the coordinating agencies (NUC, NCCE, NBTE), employers of labor and the institutions. Funding-The Federal Government of Nigeria Beneficiaries- Undergraduate students of the following:Agriculture, Engineering, Technology, Environmental, Science, Education, Medical Science and Pure and Applied Sciences. Duration -Four months for Polytechnics and Colleges of Education, and Six months for the Universities. 1. 2 OBJECTIVES 1. SIWES will provide students the opportunity to test their interest in a particular career before permanent commitments are made. 2. SIWES students will develop skills in the application of theory to practical work situations. 3. SIWES will provide students the opportunity to test their aptitude for a particular career before permanent commitments are made. 4.SIWES students will develop skills and techniques directly applicable to their careers. 5. SIWES will aid st udents in adjusting from college to full-time employment. 6. SIWES will provide students the opportunity to develop attitudes conducive to effective interpersonal relationships. 7. SIWES will increase a student's sense of responsibility. 8. SIWES students will be prepared to enter into full-time employment in their area of specialization upon graduation. 9. SIWES students will acquire good work habits. 10. SIWES students will develop employment records/references that will enhance employment opportunities. 1. SIWES will provide students with an in-depth knowledge of the formal functional activities of a participating organization. 12. SIWES will provide students the opportunity to understand informal organizational interrelationships. 13. SIWES students will have higher levels of academic performances. 14. SIWES will increase student earning potential upon graduation. 15. SIWES Students will be able to outline at least five specific goals with several staff members by comparing perf ormance with job duties and develop a draft plan with staff to accomplish performance needs, supervision plan and rewards. . 3BRIEF HISTORY OF THE ESTABLISHMENT OF ATTACHMENT The Information communication Department in the Governor’s office was first established in 2003 as a unit by the then Governor of the State, Governor Donald Duke. In 2007 it became a Department with Nine Units namely, 1. Training unit 2. Maintenance unit 3. Networking unit 4. Information system application 5. Audit unit 6. Account unit 7. PRS unit 8. Administration 9. Support unit 1. 4BRIEF DUTIES OF EACH UNITTRAINING UNIT- this unit does the training of students in Computer literacy and also runs a certificate program in CCNA and project management, comptia A+ MAINTENANCE UNIT- This Unit is in charge of maintenance of all computer systems in the department NETWORKING UNIT- This unit is in charge of Network administration in the department and in all the MDAs and the Governor’s office, this unit t akes care of the states network affairs INFORMATION SYSTEM APPLICATION UNIT- This unit is in charge of the database of the establishment Support unit- this unit is in or supports the network unit in network administration.GOALS Vision to be a leading ICT driven state in the country Mission to create an information rich, knowledge driven society RESPONSIBILITIES Is to make sure that we meet our client requirement and need in the various MDA and give them better service delivery CHAPTER TWO 2. 0 LITERATURE REVIEWIn the course of my training with the ICT Department in Governor’s Office I was privileged to work with the support Unit which is in charge of administration of the Cross River State Network the Cross River State Network this works with the Database Center at the Governor’s Office where the Network Operating Centre(NOC) is Located This Units is in charge of the network and makes sure that all Ministries Departments Agencies are Connected to the network at all tim es, in case of Network breach the units does troubleshooting to rectify the problems as fast as possible. . 1NETWORK DOMAIN AND ADMINISTRATION. (SUMMARY ON THE CROSS RIVER STATE NETWORK) Cross River State Network uses a domain to organize the network environment. Domains are groups of PCs on the same network and are a method to isolate communications between the members in the domain and the other data traffic. Anyone in a domain can communicate with each other and out bound, however PCs not defined in the domain cannot communicate with those in the domain.Basically the network starts from when the satellite in space sends radio signals down to the satellite dish receiver (ku-band, ka-band, c-band e. t. c). This satellite dish receiver is connected to the private port of the internet modem then the public port of the modem is connected to the ISA server which acts as the gateway to internet access. The ISA server is connected to a domain controller which controls the domain environm ent by granting anyone who has a registered account on the domain access to the internet recourse.I. e. anyone who does not have an account or valid log on credentials cannot use the internet. Domain controller can also be used to control the network environment by restricting the rights to chance setting on the workstation so that only administrative rights can alter settings. The ISA server is also connected to an antivirus server which monitors the automatic updates and downloading of update for all workstation in the domain with a specific antivirus used for the network installed on them.The ISA server is also connected to a 24 port switch which is connected to the different switch cabinet in each directorate of office buildings (since it is a 24 port switch it take a maximum of 23 directorates, another switch can be connected to the first switch in case of more buildings). Ever building has a cabinet where LAN (local area network) connections are distributed to different office s. The cabinet comprises of switches and patch panels. The patch panel is a device that is used as a repeater so that signals don’t get loss over a long cable.One of the cables that comes from the main 24 port switch goes to the patch panel then a RJ-45 cable is connected from the patch panel to the switch (mostly a 24-port switch) in the cabinet (in case of two switches we have two patch panels. ). The patch panel then distributes the connection in the office or to other offices in the building as LAN port where workstations can be connected to by the use of RJ-45 cable (workstations can also be connected directly to the switch). As for wireless connection, a wireless router or access point is placed at every passage way in each building.The wireless access point is either connected to one of the switches in the cabinet or the main 24-port switch. 2. 2 ISA SERVER/PROXY SERVER/GATEWAY The ISA server also acts as a proxy server/gateway. A proxy server is a server that acts as an intermediary between a workstation user and the Internet so that the enterprise can ensure security, administrative control, and caching service. A proxy server is associated with or part of a gateway server that separates the enterprise network from the outside network and a firewall server that protects the enterprise network from outside intrusion.An advantage of a proxy server is that its cache can serve all users. If one or more Internet sites are frequently requested, these are likely to be in the proxy's cache, which will improve user response time. A proxy can also do logging. A user on a workstation which is connected to the domain can only view the internet if the address and port number of the ISA server is set in the proxy address and port settings. 2. 3 HOW TO SET THE PROXY SETTINGS: †¢STEP 1: Click tools then click internet options on the browser. STEP 2: Click on the connection tab and then click LAN settings. †¢STEP 3: Type in the ISA server ip-address ( e. g. 192. 168. 2. 1) in the address box and also insert the port number (e. g. 3128). 2. 4 HOW TO JOIN A WORKSTATION TO A DOMAIN STEP 1: right-click on my-computer then clicks properties. STEP 2: click on system properties. STEP 3: Click on computer name tab, click change. STEP 4: Type in the computer name (e. g. pro 10), then click the domain radio button and type in the domain name (e. g. dpetri. net), then click ok.STEP 5: After clicking OK you would prompt with a username and password dialog box where only those with administrative credentials would be able to logon. Type in the user name and password, and then click OK. STEP 5: After clicking OK, you would be prompted with a dialog box welcoming you to the domain. Then restart the system. 2. 5 ANTIVIRUS SERVER The antivirus server is a separate system that is connected to the ISA server. It is used to protect the network from harmful treats like spyware (i. e. worm, virus, adware e. t. c. ).The antivirus server makes use of wi ndows server 2003 operating system, with a network antivirus (e. g. e-trust) installed on it. For any workstation on the network to be protected by the network antivirus server a copy of the network antivirus must be installed on them. To make the antivirus copy work with the antivirus server the proxy settings must be set using the antivirus server Ip-address (e. g. 192. 168. 2. 4) as the address in the proxy settings. 2. 6 MAIN SWITCH The main switch is a switch that is used to distribute the network connection to different buildings.A switch is a device that is used to link systems or workstations together. A switch is mainly used in a star topology. Properties of a switch: †¢Collision: this is the jamming of signal in a transmission medium. †¢Collision domain: this is the environment in which collision occurs. †¢ Broadcast: this is the sending of signal from a system to the rest of the system connected to the switch. A broadcast is usually sent across all the coll ision domains as one virtual domain. †¢Broadcast domain: this is the environment in which a broadcast is sent across. Multicast: this is the sending of signal from one system to a selected group of systems connected to the switch. †¢Unicast: this is a signal that is sent from one system to another. 2. 7PATCH PANEL A patch panel is a panel of network ports contained together, usually within a telecommunications closet that connects incoming and outgoing lines of a LAN or other communication, electronic or electrical system. In a LAN, the patch panel connects the network's computers to each other and to the outside lines that enable the LAN to connect to the Internet or another WAN.Connections are made with patch cords. The patch panel allows circuits to be arranged and rearranged by plugging and unplugging the patch cords. The use of a patch panel is necessary because is help to repeat signals travelled over a cable from a long distance to prevent data loss. A patch panel i s connected to a switch respectively according to the number on each port of both the switch and patch panel. 2. 8 ROUTER/VPN A router is a device or a computer that is used to connect two or more networks together. Routers are physical devices that join multiple wired or wireless networks together.Technically, a wired or wireless router is a Layer 3 gateway, meaning that the wired/wireless router connects networks (as gateways do), and that the router operates at the network layer of the OSI model. A router can also be called a computer because it has a LAN-port, an operating system (OS) and memory. A router has an operating system and a user interface (depending on the brand of the router). The user interface can be viewed by connecting the router via LAN-cable to a computer. 2. 8 STEPS TO VIEW THE USER INTERFACE OF A ROUTER: Know the default IP-address of the router (usually 192. 168. 0. 1). †¢Connect the router to a computer. †¢Open a browser. †¢Click on the file tab. †¢Click on open then a dialog box appears. †¢ Type in the IP-address of the router in the text box and click OK, then a logon dialog box appears. The default username and password are both admin and admin. †¢ Type in the username and password then click OK. In the user interface you can change the Ip-address to suit your company setting, change the security protocol (i. e. either WAP, WAP2, WEB e. t. c), router name e. t. VPN: A VPN (virtual private network) is a device that uses a series of encryption and algorithms to secure the data transmitted over the public internet. It allows users to work on their company network from their home with a higher level of confidence that no one else can access their work i. e. it provides a level of encryption so that an outsider would not be able to hack in to the network. VPN eliminates distance between two computers and establish a secured connection with two computers. A VPN can also act as a router in the sense that it c an be used for connecting two or more networks together.CHAPTER THREE 3. 1HARDWARE AND MAINTAINNACE During the course of training I was also fortunate to receive lectures and training on comptia A+ that is hardware and maintenance which covered Knowledge on system maintenance as a whole approaches on how to prevent system damage. A computer system basically contains the following components/devices: System case, Mother board, Processor, Memory, Graphics card, Sound card, Modem, NIC Card, Hard disk CD-ROM/DVD-ROM Monitor. SYSTEM CASE: A system case is required to hold all your components together. It houses all the internal component of a system.The system cases come in two form factors which are AT and ATX. Nearly all the cases made nowadays are ATX as the motherboard manufacturers make majority of their motherboard in the ATX form. MOTHERBOARD: A motherboard is the central printed circuit board (PCB) in a computer that holds many of the crucial components of the system, while provi ding connectors for other peripherals. The motherboard is sometimes alternatively known as the main board, system board. PROCESSOR: The processor (CPU, for Central Processing Unit) is the computer's brain.It allows the processing of numeric data, information entered in binary form, and the execution of instructions stored in memory. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is responsible for interpreting and executing most of the commands from the computer's hardware and software. It is often called the â€Å"brains† of the computer. MEMORY: A memory is the name given to a silicon chips that stores volatile computer data. The word Volatile means that the contents of memory will be lost if the power of the computer switched off. Memory stores some of your operating system and application data while it is being run.The more memory you have in your computer the higher the amount of application you can run simultaneously, and will provide an overall better system performance. Memory com es in different forms. The older system uses SDRAM, while Fig 3. 1 A typical system board The current system uses DDR-SDRAM (Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory). Fig 3. 2 3. 2. SYSTEM BOARD COMPONENTS Now that you understand the basic types of motherboards and their form factors, it’s time to look at the components found on the motherboard and their locations relative to each other Figure 3. illustrates many of the following components found on a typical motherboard: * Chipsets * Expansion slots * Memory slots and external cache * CPU and processor slots or sockets * Power connectors * Onboard disk drive connectors * Keyboard connectors * Peripheral port and connectors * BIOS chip * CMOS battery * Jumpers and DIP switches * Firmware CHIPSETS A chipset is usually designed to work with a specific family of microprocessors. Because it controls communications between the processor and external devices, the chipset plays a crucial role in determining system performance.The manufacturer of a chipset often is independent from the manufacturer of the motherboard. Current manufacturers of chipsets for PC-compatible motherboards include NVIDIA, AMD, VIA Technologies, Intel and Broadcom. There can only be two (2) chipsets in a computer namely Northbridge and Southbridge. NORTHBRIDGE The Northbridge links the CPU to very high-speed devices, especially main memory and graphics controller’s . The communications between the CPU and memory occur over what is known as the front side bus (FSB), which is just a set of signal pathways between the CPU and main memory.The Northbridge chipsets also manage the communications between the Southbridge Chipset and the rest of the computer SOUTHBRIDGE Southbridge connects to lower-speed peripheral buses (such as PCI or ISA). In many modern chipsets, the Southbridge actually contains some on-chip integrated peripherals, such as Ethernet, USB, and audio devices. A typical motherboard chipset for Pentium architecture. EXPANSION SLOTS The most visible parts of any motherboard are the expansion slots. These look like small plastic slots, usually from 3 to 11 inches long and approximately 1? 2 inch wide.As their name suggests, these slots are used to install various devices in the computer to expand its capabilities. Some expansion devices that might be installed in these slots include video, network, sound, and disk interface cards. If you look at the motherboard in your computer, you will more than likely see one of the Main types of expansion slots used in computers today: * ISA * PCI * AGP * PCIe Each type differs in appearance and function. In this section, we will cover how to visually identify the different expansion slots on the motherboard. ISA Expansion SlotsISA bus first appeared in PC based on 80286 CPU. The idea was to put a standard in interfacing with peripheral devices. In our days this bus is kept for compatibility with â€Å"legacy† peripheral devices such as B IOS ROM, Parallel and Serial Ports, Sound and Modem devices. These devices have historical fixed address range (no Plug and Play option) and aren't hurt by low speed of ISA bus (8/16 bit data bus with 8 MHz clock speed). Most modern PCs don't even have extra ISA slots since most peripheral components moved to PCI and USB. ISA bus requires 4 bus cycles for each data transfer. Fig 3. EXPANSION CARD AND SLOT PCI Expansion Slots PCI bus was developed by Intel for high performance peripheral devices, such as graphic accelerators, disk controllers, data acquisition boards. PCI was supposed to overcome limitations of existing ISA bus. 16 bit ISA bus with clock speed of 10 MHz with theoretical bus throughput 2M transfers/sec but practically not more than 500k. PCI bus is much faster: in burst mode PCI can transfer 32 or 64 bit data with 33 MHz or 64 MHz clock, that yields transfer rates from 132 MB/sec to 538 MB/sec, PCI supports huge address range: 32/64 bit address bus instead of 16 bit I SA.It is a burst oriented bus designed for large transfers; hidden bus arbitration among multiple musters is provided on each bus. In theory up to 32 logical devices can reside on PCI bus. But practically, a PCI bus is more likely to have maximum 10 devices because of its low-powered, reflected wave-switching. If more devices is desired PCI to PCI bridge is used. PCI devices are automatically configured in software (Plug and Play option). This eliminates earlier problems with ISA configuration using fixed addresses or user configured switches and jumpers.In recent years some peripheral devices have gotten faster and PCI became too slow for CD and hard disks. Then new interfaces appeared: IDE, SCSI. Fig 3. 4 PCI expansion slot AGP EXPANSION SLOTS AGP port When 3D graphics applications became common, graphic devices were still found on the PCI bus. AGP port provides high speed access to the memory and allows sharing it with local video memory. AGP is not a bus (no competition between devices sitting on the same bus), but port with a dedicated connection between North bridge and graphic accelerator.Speed is 264 MB/s – 1 GB/s Fig 3. 4 An AGP slot PCI EXPANSION SLOTS The newest expansion slot architecture that is being used by motherboards is PCI Express (PCI). It was designed to be a replacement for AGP and PCI. It has the capability of being faster than AGP while maintaining the flexibility of PCI. And motherboards with PCI will have regular PCI slots for backward compatibility with PCI. The diagram below illustrates Pentium IV system. You can see that ISA bus is gone and a new interface introduced: PCI Express. LPC is a subset of PCI (low pin count).PCI Express provides advanced features such as better power management, performance and bandwidth increases, enables support for streaming media, TV tuners, cameras, graphics. POWER CONNECTORS In addition to these sockets and slots on the motherboard, a special connector (shown in allows the motherboard to be connected to the power supply to receive power. This connector is where the ATX power connector plugs in. Fig 3. 5 An ATX power connector Central Processing Unit (CPU) and Processor Socket or Slot The â€Å"brain† of any computer is the central processing unit (CPU).This component does all the calculations and performs 90 percent of all the functions of a computer. There are many different types of processors for computers—so many, typically, in today’s computers, the processor is the easiest component to identify on the motherboard. It is usually the component that has either a fan or a heat sink (usually both) attached to it. These devices are used to draw away the heat a processor generates. This is done because heat is the enemy of microelectronics. Theoretically, a Pentium (or higher) processor generates enough heat that without the heat sink it would self-destruct in a matter of hours.Sockets and slots on the motherboard are as plentiful and varied as proc essors. Sockets are basically flat and have several rows of holes arranged in a square, as shown in Figure 1. 10. The processor slot is another method of connecting a processor to a motherboard, but one into which an Intel Pentium II or Pentium III–class processor on a special expansion card can be inserted. Fig 3. 6 Processors with a fan and heat sinks Fig 3. 7An example of a CPU socket Modern processors can feature the following: OVER CLOCKING: Over clocking your CPU offers increased performance, on a processor designed to operate at the over clocked speed.However, unlike with the processor designed to run that fast, you must make special arrangements to ensure that an over clocked CPU does not destroy itself from the increased heat levels. An advanced cooling mechanism, such as liquid cooling, might be necessary to avoid losing the processor and other components. 3. 3 COMPUTER MEMORY Computer RAM is the best known form of memory your computer uses. Every file or applicatio n opened is placed in RAM. Any information the computer needs or uses becomes part of a continuous cycle where the CPU requests data from RAM, processes it and then writes new data back to RAM.This can happen millions of times a second. However, this is usually just for temporary file storage, so unless the data is saved somewhere, it is deleted when the files or applications are closed 3. 4 HARD DISK DRIVE A hard disk drive (HDD), commonly referred to as a hard drive or hard disk, is a non-volatile storage device which stores digitally encoded data on rapidly rotating platters with magnetic surfaces. Strictly speaking, â€Å"drive† refers to a device distinct from its medium, such as a tape drive and its tape, or a floppy disk drive and its floppy disk.Early HDDs had removable media; however, an HDD today is typically a sealed unit with fixed media. Figure 3. 8 showing a Hard disk and its components. A hard disk drive stores information on one or more rigid, flat, disks. The disks are mounted on a spindle, with spacers in between, and a motor on the bottom end of the spindle. To read and write to the surface of the disks, the drive uses a small electro-magnet assembly, referred to as a head, located on the end of an actuator arm. There is one head for each platter surface on the spindle. The disks are spun at a very high speed to allow the head to move quickly over the surface of the disk.Towards the other end of the actuator arm is a pivot point, and at the end is a voice coil, which moves the head. Above and below each voice coil is a rare earth magnet. This allows the head to move towards the center of the disk or towards the outside, in a radial pattern. Fig 3. 9 Describing inside the HDD 3. 5 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE OF THE HARD DISK DRIVE The preventive measures are used to improve the performance of the hard disk. The primary tools or utilities available are: Scandisk: This utility can be used to scan surface for media errors, scan files and folde rs for data problem.Scan disk is run each time window is not properly shot down. You should run scan disk at least weekly to find and repair small error on disk before they become major problem. Disk Defragmentation: This utility is use to rearrange your disk files, combined and organized unused disk space so that application run faster. As we modify or delete file on hard disk, file become fragmented. The defragmenter eliminates fragmentation so that data in the file are readily available to program asking for it. Disk Cleanup/delete Unused File: This utility remove unnecessary file from your hard disk.This tool scan the disk you designate to fine files that can be removed without affecting the operation of the PC and the Window operating system. Backup: Backing up hard disk data to another storage media that can be stored outside the PC is also a preventive maintenance. This usually prevent hard disk against failure, PC problem hardware can be replaced but most often data cannot b e recovered, so making a backup copy of your file is a safety precaution that ensure that your data can be outlive on the device on which it is stored.Empty Recycle Bin: The recycle bin should always be emptied at least monthly in order to remove all deleted data, file, programs that are no longer needed. 3. 6 FLOPPY DISK DRIVES Floppy disks, also known as floppies or diskettes (where the suffix -ette means little one) were ubiquitous in the 1980s and 1990s, being used on home and personal computer (â€Å"PC†) platforms such as the Apple II, Macintosh, Commodore 64, Atari ST, Amiga, and IBM PC to distribute software, transfer data between computers, and create small backups.Before the popularization of the hard drive for PCs, floppy disks were typically used to store a computer's operating system (OS), application software, and other data. Many home computers had their primary OS kernels stored permanently in on-board ROM chips, but stored the disk operating system on a flopp y, whether it be a proprietary system, CP/M, or, later, DOS. Since the floppy drive was the primary means of storing programs, it was typically designated as the ‘A:' drive. The second floppy drive was the ‘B:' drive.And those with the luxury of a hard drive were designated the ‘C:' drive, a convention that remains with us today long after the decline of the floppy disk's utility. Fig 3. 10 CD-ROM DRIVES Figure3. 10 showing Old 4x CD-ROM DRIVE CD-ROM discs are read using CD-ROM drives, which are now almost universal on personal computers. A CD-ROM drive may be connected to the computer via an IDE (ATA), SCSI, SATA, Fire wire, or USB interface or a proprietary interface, such as the Panasonic CD interface.Virtually all modern CD-ROM drives can also play audio CDs as well as Video CDs and other data standards when used in conjunction with the right software. 3. 7 INSTALLING THE HARDWARE COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM Things to get in place before starting: Set of sc rewdrivers and pliers, Piece of cloth, CPU Thermal compound (recommended), PC components. Make sure you have all the components in place and a nice, clean and big enough place to work with. Fig 3. 11 All PC components accept the case Tip: CPU Thermal compound is not a necessity but it is recommended to keep your CPU cool under load conditions by helping heat dissipate faster.It is a must if you intend to over clock your PC. Installing the motherboard Fig 3. 12. Open the side doors of the cabinet Lay the cabinet on its side Put the motherboard in place Drive in all the required screws Most motherboards come with an antistatic bag. It is advisable to put the motherboard on it for some time and then remove it from the antistatic bag before placing it in the cabinet. Fig 3. 13 Step 1 Installing the CPU CPU is the heart of a computer so make sure you handle it properly and do not drop it or mishandle it. Steps 1 * Lift the CPU lever on the motherboard Place the CPU properly on the mother board * Pull down the lever to secure the CPU in place Warning: Do not try to push the CPU into the motherboard! Step 2 Got the thermal compound? Now is the time to use it. Take small amount of it and carefully apply it on the top surface of the processor. Be careful not to put it on the neighboring parts of the motherboard. If you do so clean it immediately using the cloth. Tip: Thermal compounds should be changed once every six months for optimal performance. Step 3 installing the heat sink Fig 3. 15 After installing the processor we proceed to installing the heat sink.There are different kinds of heat sinks that are bundled with the processor and each has a different way of installation. Look into your CPU manual for instructions on how to install it properly. Place the heat sink on the processor Put the jacks in place Secure the heat sink with the lever After this you will need to connect the cable of the heat sink on the motherboard. Again look into the motherboard manual on wh ere to connect it and then connect it to the right port to get your heat sink in operational mode. Installing the RAM Fig 3. 16 Installing the RAM is also an easy job.The newer RAMs that is DDR RAMs are easy to install as you don’t have to worry about placing which side where into the slot. The older ones, SDRAMs are plagued by this problem. Push down the RAM into the slot Make sure the both the clips hold the RAM properly Installing the power supply Fig 3. 17 Installing the power supply as the components we install after this will require power cables to be connected to them. There is not much to be done to install a PSU. Place the PSU into the cabinet Put the screws in place tightly Tip: Some PSU have extra accessories that come bundled with it. Consult your PSU manual to see how to install them.Step 6: Installing the video card Fig 3. 18 First you will need to find out whether your video card is AGP or PCI-E. AGP graphics cards have become redundant and are being phased ou t of the market quickly. So if you bought a spanking new card it will certainly be a PCI-E. * Remove the back plate on the cabinet corresponding to the graphics card * Push the card into the slot * Secure the card with a screw * Plug in the power connection from PSU (if required) High-end graphics cards need dedicated power supply and if your graphics card needs one then connect the appropriate wire from PSU into the graphics card.Step 7: Installing the hard disk Fig 3. 19 Hard disk is another fragile component of the computer and needs to be handled carefully. Place the hard drive into the bay Secure the drive with screws If the jumpers or switches are set for the only hard drive or master role, move on. If the jumpers or switches are not configured correctly, move them to the correct position with your needle-nose pliers or your tweezers. Connect the power cable from PSU Connect the data cable from motherboard into the drive If your hard drive is a SATA one then connect one end of SATA cable into the motherboard and other into the SATA port on the hard disk.If your hard disk is PATA type then use the IDE cable instead of the SATA cable. Tip: If your PSU does not support SATA power supply then you will need to get a converter which will convert your standard IDE power connector to a SATA power connector. Fig 3. 20 Testing the Hard disk installation Verify that a monitor, keyboard, and mouse are connected to the PC. Make sure the power cord is connected and that the computer is receiving power. Power up the unit and watch the boot. Step 9: Connecting various cables Fig 3. 21 First we will finish setting up internal components and then get on to the external ones.You will need to consult your motherboard manual for finding the appropriate port for connecting various cables at the right places on the motherboard. Connect the large ATX power connector to the power supply port on your motherboard. Next get hold of the smaller square power connector which supplies power to the processor and connect it to the appropriate port by taking help from your motherboard manual. Connect the cabinet cables for power, reset button in the appropriate port of the motherboard. Connect the front USB/audio panel cable in the motherboard Plug the cable of cabinet fansYou are done with installing the internal components of the PC. Close the side doors of the cabinet and get it upright and place it on your computer table. Get the rest of the PC components like monitor, keyboard, mouse, speakers etc. which we will connect now. Connect the VGA cable of the monitor into the VGA port If mouse/keyboard is PS/2 then connect them to PS/2 ports or else use the USB port Connect the speaker cable in the audio port Fig 3. 22 Plug in the power cable from PSU into the UPS Also plug in the power cable of the monitor You are now done with setting up your PC.Power on and see your PC boot to glory. Step 10: Installing Operating System Here are some useful steps enter your BIOS s ettings instruct the computer to boot from the CD –ROM, insert a bootable disk fold your arms and watch your PC boot to Glory. CHAPTER FOUR 4. 1 NETWORKING AND NETWORK CABLES Knowledge gained on Networking Network is a group of connected computers. This can be as small and simple as two (2) computers connected together or as large and complex as a multisite network that supports thousands of computers and printers and other device.Networking allows for increased communication (video conferencing, real-time chats, e-mailing etc), hardware and software resources sharing (printers, drives, data, files application etc) and Data back up and retrieval. Network models can be any of peer-to-peer or client/server model. Types of network include LAN (Local Area Network), WAN (Wide area network), MAN (Metropolitan Area Network), Virtual LAN, Virtual Private Network, (VPN). 4. 2 NETWORK DEVELOPMENT COMPONENTS Components used to develop a network can be classified broadly into 2 that is H ardware and software The Hardware components include * Computers Modems * Interfaces * Peripherals * Networking cards * Cabling – UTP, STP, Fiber Optics, coaxial * Interconnecting devices, e. g. repeaters routers, hubs, NIC, switches, bridges The software includes operating system (such as MS Dos, UNIX, protocols and other software tools supporting the data communication across the network. The number of components (software and hardware) depends on a number of factors like, type of Network to be used, number of workstation, hosts, PC terminals other peripheral devices to be connected to the Network, data volume, speed of transmission, application program and services required. . 3 MAIN TYPES OF NETWORK TOPOLOGIES In networking, the term â€Å"topology† refers to the layout of connected devices on a network. This article introduces the standard topologies of computer networking. One can think of a topology as a network's virtual shape or structure. This shape does not necessarily correspond to the actual physical layout of the devices on the network. For example, the computers on a home LAN may be arranged in a circle in a family room, but it would be highly unlikely to find an actual ring topology there. Network topologies are categorized into the following basic types: * Star Topology Ring Topology * Bus Topology * Tree Topology * Mesh Topology * Hybrid Topology More complex networks can be built as hybrids of two or more of the above basic topologies. Star Topology: Many home networks use the star topology. A star network features a central connection point called a â€Å"hub† that may be a hub, switch or router. Devices typically connect to the hub with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet. Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable, but a failure in any star network cable will only take down one computer's network access and not the entire LAN. If the hub fails, however, the entire network also fails. ) See the illustration of Star Network Topology. Fig 4. 1 Advantages of a Star Topology * Easy to install and wire. * No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing devices. * Easy to detect faults and to remove parts. Disadvantages of A Star Topology * Requires more cable length than a linear topology. * If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled. * More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the concentrators. The protocols used with star configurations are usually Ethernet or Local Talk.Token Ring uses a similar topology, called the star-wired ring. Star-Wired Ring: A star-wired ring topology may appear (externally) to be the same as a star topology. Internally, the MAU of a star-wired ring contains wiring that allows information to pass from one device to another in a circle or ring. The Token Ring protocol uses a star-wired ring topology. Ring Topology: In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communicatio n purposes. All messages travel through a ring in the same direction (either â€Å"clockwise† or â€Å"counterclockwise†).A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the entire network. To implement a ring network, one typically uses FDDI, SONET, or Token Ring technology. Ring topologies are found in some office buildings or school campuses. See the illustration of Ring Topology. Fig 4. 2 Bus Topology: Bus networks (not to be confused with the system bus of a computer) use a common backbone to connect all devices. A single cable, the backbone functions as a shared communication medium that devices attach or tap into with an interface connector.A device wanting to communicate with another device on the network sends a broadcast message onto the wire that all other devices see, but only the intended recipient actually accepts and processes the message. Ethernet bus topologies are relatively easy to install and don't require much cabling compared to the alternatives. 10Base-2 (â€Å"Thin Net†) and 10Base-5 (â€Å"Thick Net†) both were popular Ethernet cabling options many years ago for bus topologies. However, bus networks work best with a limited number of devices. If more than a few dozen computers are added to a network bus, performance problems will likely result.In addition, if the backbone cable fails, the entire network effectively becomes unusable. See the illustration of Bus Network Topology. Fig 4. 3 Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology * Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus. * Requires less cable length than a star topology. Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology * Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable. * Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable. * Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down. * Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.Tree Topology: Tree topologies integrate multiple star to pologies together onto a bus. In its simplest form, only hub devices connect directly to the tree bus and each hub functions as the â€Å"root† of a tree of devices. This bus/star hybrid approach supports future expandability of the network much better than a bus (limited in the number of devices due to the broadcast traffic it generates) or a star (limited by the number of hub connection points) alone. See the illustration of Tree Network Topology. Fig 4. 4 Advantages of a Tree Topology Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.Supported by several hardware and software vendors. Disadvantages of a Tree Topology Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used. If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down. More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies. Mesh Topology: Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes. Unlike each of the previous topologies, messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several possible paths fro m source to destination. (Recall that even in a ring, although two cable paths exist, messages can only travel in one direction. Some WANs, most notably the Internet, employ mesh routing. A mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a full mesh. As shown in the illustration below, partial mesh networks also exist in which some devices connect only indirectly to others. See the illustration of Mesh Network Topology. Fig 4. 5 Hybrid Topology A combination of any two or more network topologies. Note 1: Instances can occur where two basic network topologies, when connected together, can still retain the basic network character, and therefore not be a hybrid network.For example, a tree network connected to a tree network is still a tree network. Therefore, a hybrid network accrues only when two basic networks are connected and the resulting network topology fails to meet one of the basic topology definitions. For example, two star networks connected together exh ibit hybrid network topologies. Note 2: A hybrid topology always accrues when two different basic network topologies are connected. 4. 4 Network Adapters There are many different names for network adapters, including network cards, Network Interface Cards, NICs. These are all generic terms for the same piece of hardware.A network card’s job is to physically attach a computer to a network, so that the computer can participate in network communications. The first thing that you need to know about network cards is that the network card has to match the network medium. The network medium refers to the type of cabling that is being used on the network. Wireless networks are a science all their own, and I will talk about them in a separate article. At one time making sure that a network card matched the network medium was a really big deal, because there were a large number of competing standards in existence.For example, before you built a network and started buying network cards and cabling, you had to decide if you were going to use Ethernet, coaxal Ethernet, Token Ring, Arcnet, or one of the other networking standards of the time. Each networking technology had its strengths and weaknesses, and it was important to figure out which one was the most appropriate for your organization. Today, most of the networking technologies that I mentioned above are quickly becoming extinct. Pretty much the only type of wired network used by small and medium sized businesses is Ethernet. This is what an Ethernet card looks likeFig 4. 6 4. 5 UTP CABLE TYPES UTP cabling, terminated with RJ-45 connectors, is a common copper-based medium for interconnecting network devices, such as computers, with intermediate devices, such as routers and network switches. Different situations may require UTP cables to be wired according to different wiring conventions. This means that the individual wires in the cable have to be connected in different orders to different sets of pins in the RJ-45 connectors. The following are main cable types that are obtained by using specific wiring conventions: * Ethernet Straight-through Ethernet Crossover * Rollover Using a crossover or straight-through cable incorrectly between devices may not damage the devices, but connectivity and communication between the devices will not take place. This is a common error in the lab and checking that the device connections are correct should be the first troubleshooting action if connectivity is not achieved. Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cabling, as it is used in Ethernet LANs, consists of four pairs of color-coded wires that have been twisted together and then encased in a flexible plastic sheath.The twisting has the effect of canceling unwanted signals. When two wires in an electrical circuit are placed close together, external electromagnetic fields create the same interference in each wire. The pairs are twisted to keep the wires in as close proximity as is physically possible. When th is common interference is present on the wires in a twisted pair, the receiver processes it in equal yet opposite ways. As a result, the signals caused by electromagnetic interference from external sources are effectively cancelled. 4. 6UTP CABLING STANDARDSThe UTP cabling commonly found in workplaces, schools, and homes conforms to the standards established jointly by the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) and the Electronics Industries Alliance (EIA). TIA/EIA-568A stipulates the commercial cabling standards for LAN installations and is the standard most commonly used in LAN cabling environments. Some of the elements defined are: * Cable types * Cable lengths * Connectors * Cable termination * Methods of testing cable There three (3) types of unshielded twisted pair Ethernet cables and they are: Ethernet Straight- throughEthernet Crossover Rollover The figure below shows the color combinations for producing these cables Fig 4. 7 CABLE TYPE| STANDARD| APPLICATION| Etherne t straight- through| Both end T568A or both end T568B| Connecting a network host to a network device such as a switch or hub. Connect a computer to a cable/DSL modem's LAN portConnect a router's WAN port to a cable/DSL modem's LAN port. Connect a router's LAN port to a switch/hub's uplink port. (normally used for expanding network)Connect two (2) switches/hubs with one of the switch/hub using an uplink port and the other one using normal port. Ethernet crossover| One end T568A, And the other end T568B. | Connecting two network hosts. Connecting network intermediary devices such as (switch- to- router) or (router-to-router)Connect 2 switches/hubs by using normal port in both switches/hubs. | Rollover| Cisco proprietary| Connect a workstation serial port to a router console port, using an adapter. | Making Ethernet UTP cables WHAT YOU NEED Fig 4. 8 Cable- Be sure the cable(s) you are using is properly rated for CAT 5. It should state clearly on the jacket of the cable, what it is rate d at.One option that you have when selecting your cable is to use a pre-made normal ‘straight through' cable, and simply whack off one of the ends, and replace with a new â€Å"Crossed Over† end. For the purpose of this report, though, we aren't going to go that route. We are going to make the whole thing from scratch – using bulk CAT 5 cable. Connectors – Crossover cables are terminated with CAT 5 RJ-45 (RJ stands for â€Å"Registered Jack†) modular plugs. RJ-45 plugs are similar to those you'll see on the end of your telephone cable except they have eight versus four contacts on the end of the plug.Also, make sure the ends you select are rated for CAT 5 wiring. There are also different types of jacks which are used for different types of cabling (such as Solid Core wire). Make sure you buy the correct jacks for your cabling. Crimper – You will need a modular crimping tool. Fig 4. 9 Stripper – There are several specialized tools, whic h can be used to strip the jackets off of cabling. If you do not have access to one of these tools, cautious use of a razor blade or knife should work just fine – but keep in mind if you go the razor blade / knife route, extra special care must be used as to not damage the wires inside the jacket.Cutters – You need a pair of cutters that will allow you to cut a group of cables in a straight line. It is very important that all the wires are the same lengths, and without proper cutters, this can be a difficult task. Fig 4. 10 LAN Tester – You need the LAN tester to test the cable after crimping to ensure the functionality of the cable. Connect the cable to the tester and see if all lights turn green. If all lights turn green, your cable is working properly. If they do not, cut the RJ-45 connector off and re-terminate the ends of the cable with a new one.Fig 4. 11 1. Start by stripping off about 2 inches of the plastic jacket off the end of the cable. Be very caref ul at this point, as to not nick or cut into the wires, which are inside. Doing so could alter the characteristics of your cable, or even worse render it useless. Check the wires, one more time for nicks or cuts. If there are any, just whack the whole end off, and start over. Fig 4. 12 2)Spread the wires apart, but be sure to hold onto the base of the jacket with your other hand. You do not want the wires to become untwisted down inside the jacket.Category 5 cable must only have 1/2 of an inch of ‘untwisted' wire at the end; otherwise it will be ‘out of specification' Fig4. 13 Up to this point, things have been pretty easy. Things will get a little bit tricky here, but don't worry; we'll get through this together. We are at a point in this report where a decision needs to be made. You need to decide which end of the cable you are making at this point in time. If you are making your cable from scratch like I am doing while writing this report, you have 2 end jacks, which must be installed on your cable.If you are using a pre-made cable, with one of the ends whacked off, you only have one end to install – the crossed over end. Below are two diagrams, which show how you need to arrange the cables for each type of cable end. Decide at this point which end you are making and examine the associated picture below. Fig4. 14 Begin to untwist the twisted exposed wires on your cable. Use caution so that you do not untwist them down inside the jacket. Once you have all the wires untwisted begin to arrange them in the proper order based on the pictures above.This stage can be a frustrating one, especially some of the middle wires. Once you get all the wired arranged in the proper order, make sure your wire cutters are within reach then grasp them right at the point where they enter the jacket. Make sure you keep them in the proper order! Grab your cutters now. Line them up along your prepared wires about 1/2 inches above the jacket. Be sure at this point that you are both 1/2 inches above the jacket, and that your cutters are aligned straight across the wires. You want to make a clean cut here – also make sure you don't let go of that jacket / wires!Fig4. 15 5. Grab those crimpers – because not all crimpers are exactly the same your pictures may not match exactly what you see below. Be sure to keep a good grip on that jack and the cable. Insert the jack into the crimper. It should only go in one way, so you don't have a whole lot to worry about inserting it. Begin to compress those crimpers. You will more than likely hear a clicking sound. Keep squeezing. If you try to let go too early, nothing will happen. They will not release. Keep going until they stop clicking / stop moving all together.At this point, you should be able to let go of the jack, and the crimpers. The crimpers should release now leaving you with a crimped jack. If the crimpers do not release, you probably didn’t press hard enough. Fig4. 16 6)I t's time to examine what we have done. If you look at the end of the jack you should see that the copper connectors should not be pressed down into the wires. Toward the back of the jack (where the jacket meets the jack) it should be crimped securely holding the jacket / cable in the jack. If something has gone wrong, don't worry, it’s not the end of the world.Grab those cutters, and just whack the whole jack off and start back at step 1 (a frustrating one I know, but it’s better to have a cable that works, than to spend hours trouble shooting your PC trying to figure out why you can't see the other machine). If everything is cool, all you have to do now is make the other end of the cable so go back to step one, and make the other end as I have explained in this report. Fig 4. 17 Good |   |   | Fig4. 18|   | WRONG WAY – Note how the blue plastic shielding is not inside the connector where it can be locked into place. |   |   |   | Fig4. 9|   | WRON G WAY – Note how the cables do not go all the way to the end of the connector. | 4. 7 CONNECTING TWO COMPUTERS USING CROSSOVER CABLES Fig 4. 20 Plug in network card each to computer and then install network card driver for each computer. Connect the cable to both computers’ network card. Here comes the network configuration, let’s create a simple network by assigning following network info to each computer's network card: Computer A: IP Address: 10. 1. 1. 1 Subnet mask: 255. 255. 255. 0 Gateway: DNS Servers: Computer B: IP Address: 10. 1. 1. 2 Subnet mask: 255. 255. 255. 0 Gateway: DNS Servers:Since these 2 computers are directly connected, no gateway and DNS servers are needed. After assigning IP address, try to ping the other computer from command prompt, you should be able to ping each other and then sharing printers or files as you wish. 4. 8 USING PING TO TROUBLESHOOT NETWORK PROBLEM Sometimes if your network connection is down, you can use ping to troubles hoot network problem and then fix it. Ping is a program used to check whether a host is up and active in network. It’s very simple and usually used to troubleshoot network problem. Here is typical technique for pinging and it applies to wireless network as well. . First thing you need to do is to make sure there is light on network card with cable connected. Sometimes network down is due to disconnected network cable or loose cable connection. If you notice no light on your network card after connecting with network cable, make sure the network cable is working. If you see the light, then proceed to step 2. 2. Go to Start and click on Run. Type CMD, and hit Enter or click OK. Fig 4. 21 Type â€Å"ping† in the Command Window. Hit the space bar once. Type the IP or website address that you want to ping. For example, if you want to ping eBay, type â€Å"www. ebay. om† after the space. Hit â€Å"Enter. † If the website is up and actively responding, you recei ve replies back from the server that you pinged with the following information: The IP address The number of Bytes sent The time it took in milliseconds The TTL is Time to Live (This indicated the number of â€Å"hops† back from the computer pinged from that computers initial TTL value. ) Fig4. 22 4. 9HUBS AND SWITCHES As you can see, computers use network cards to send and receive data. The data is transmitted over Ethernet cables. However, you normally can’t just run an Ethernet cable between two PCs and call it a network.In this day and age of high speed Internet access being almost universally available, you tend to hear the term broadband thrown around a lot. Broadband is a type of network in which data is sent and received across the same wire. In contrast, Ethernet uses Baseband communications. Baseband uses separate wires for sending and receiving data. What this means is that if one PC is sending data across a particular wire within the Ethernet cable, then th e PC that is receiving the data needs to have the wire redirected to its receiving port. You can actually network two PCs together in this way.You can create what is known as a cross over cable. A cross over cable is simply a network cable that has the sending and receiving wires reversed at one end, so that two PCs can be linked directly together. The problem with using a cross over cable to build a network is that the network will be limited to using no more and no less than two PCs. Rather than using a cross over cable, most networks use normal Ethernet cables that do not have the sending and receiving wires reversed at one end. Of course the sending and receiving wires have to be reversed at some point in order for ommunications to succeed. This is the job of a hub or a switch. Hubs are starting to become extinct, but I want to talk about them anyway because it will make it easier to explain switches later on. There are different types of hubs, but generally speaking a hub is no thing more than a box with a bunch of RJ-45 ports. Each computer on a network would be connected to a hub via an Ethernet cable. You can see a picture of a hub, shown in Figure C. Fig 4. 23 A hub is a device that acts as a central connection point for computers on a network A hub has two different jobs.Its first job is to provide a central point of connection for all of the computers on the network. Every computer plugs into the hub (multiple hubs can be daisy chained together if necessary in order to accommodate more computers). The hub’s other job is to arrange the ports in such a way so that if a PC transmits data, the data is sent over the other computer’s receive wires. Right now you might be wondering how data gets to the correct destination if more than two PCs are connected to a hub. The secret lies in the network card. Each Ethernet card is programmed at the factory with a unique Media Access Control (MAC) address.When a computer on an Ethernet network transmi ts data across an Ethernet network containing PCs connected to a hub, the data is actually sent to every computer on the network. As each computer receives the data, it compares the destination address to its own MAC address. If the addresses match then the computer knows that it is the intended recipient, otherwise it ignores the data. As you can see, when computers are connected via a hub, every packet gets sent to every computer on the network. The problem is that any computer can send a transmission at any given time.Have you ever been on a conference call and accidentally started to talk at the same time as someone else? This is the same thing that happens on this type of network. When a PC needs to transmit data, it checks to make sure that no other computers are sending data at the moment. If the line is clear, it transmits the necessary data. If another computer tries to communicate at the same time though, then the packets of data that are traveling across the wire collide and are destroyed (this is why this type of network is sometimes referred to as a collision domain). Both PCs then have to wait for a random mount of time and attempt to retransmit the packet that was destroyed. As the number of PCs on a collision domain increases, so does the number of collisions. As the number of collisions increase, network efficiency is decreased. This is why switches have almost completely replaced hubs. A switch, such as the one shown in Figure D, performs all of the same basic tasks as a hub. The difference is that when a PC on the network needs to communicate with another PC, the switch uses a set of internal logic circuits to establish a dedicated, logical path between the two PCs.What this means is that the two PCs are free to communicate with each other, without having to worry about collisions. Fig4. 24 A switch looks a lot like a hub, but performs very differently Switches greatly improve a network’s efficiency. Yes, they eliminate collisions, bu t there is more to it than that. Because of the way that switches work, they can establish parallel communications paths. For example, just because computer A is communicating with computer B, there is no reason why computer C can’t simultaneously communicate with computer D.In a collision domain, these types of parallel communications would be impossible because they would result in collisions. 4. 10 PLANNING AND CABLING NETWORKS. When planning the installation of LAN cabling, there are four physical areas to consider: Work area Telecommunications room, also known as the distribution facility Backbone cabling, also known as vertical cabling Distribution cabling, also known as horizontal cabling Total Cable Length For UTP installations, the ANSI/TIA/EIA-568-B standard specifies that the total combined length of cable spanning the four areas listed above is limited to a maximum distance of 100 meters per